Autophagic control of listeria through intracellular innate immune recognition in drosophila.

Autophagy, an evolutionally conserved homeostatic process for catabolizing cytoplasmic components, has been linked to the elimination of intracellular pathogens during mammalian innate immune responses. However, the mechanisms underlying cytoplasmic infection-induced autophagy and the function of autophagy in host survival after infection with intracellular pathogens remain unknown. Here we report that in drosophila, recognition of diaminopimelic acid-type peptidoglycan by the pattern-recognition receptor PGRP-LE was crucial for the induction of autophagy and that autophagy prevented the intracellular growth of Listeria monocytogenes and promoted host survival after this infection. Autophagy induction occurred independently of the Toll and IMD innate signaling pathways. Our findings define a pathway leading from the intracellular pattern-recognition receptors to the induction of autophagy to host defense.

Dienogest suppresses the activation of primordial follicles and preserves the primordial follicle stockpile for fertility in mice.

The aim of the present study was to characterize the effect of long-term usage of dienogest, a fourth-generation progestin that possesses progestogen and anti-androgen activities, on the stockpile of oocytes and fertility after administration. Female ICR mice (100 days old) were divided into a dienogest group and a control group. The mice received 16 consecutive subcutaneous injections of 5 mg dienogest dissolved in corn oil or corn oil as a vehicle control every 4 days. The mice treated with dienogest had more total offspring and larger litter sizes after the final administration than the mice treated with the vehicle control. Greater numbers of primordial follicles were detected at both 4 and 80 days after the final administration. No significant differences were found in serum anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations at 4 and 80 days after the final dienogest administration. The ratio of primary to primordial follicles was decreased in 3-day-old newborn ovaries cultured for 4 days with dienogest (10-7, 10-6 and 10-5 mol/l) compared with ovaries cultured without dienogest. The results of the present study indicate that dienogest suppresses the activation of primordial follicles during its administration and preserves the primordial follicle stockpile and subsequent fertility in mice.

Identification of biomarkers for drug-resistant endometriosis using clinical proteomics.

Dienogest (DNG), is an effective and widely used progestin used in the treatment of endometriosis, yet clinically, a subset of cases show resistance to DNG treatment. During a previous investigation on the effect of DNG of cytokines and growth factor production, we incidentally found that endometriotic cyst fluid did not demonstrate inhibitory effects to DNG in a subset of cases. To clarify the mechanisms of this resistance to DNG, we performed proteomics analysis to compare the protein expression between DNG-sensitive and resistant cases. Based upon our results, several proteins were extracted that relate to neutrophil granulocyte activation marker (myeloperoxidase, lactotransferrin), inflammation (azurocidin, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, etc.), and others biological processes reflecting the clinical environment of the endometriotic cyst. Among these proteins, azurocidin (AZU) is perhaps most interesting one as azurocidin is a protease that cleaves insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGFBP-1) associated with clear cell carcinoma of the ovary. We propose that the proteins extracted in the present study warrant further investigation in their relationship to carcinogenesis of endometrioma.

Dienogest, a synthetic progestin, inhibits the proliferation of immortalized human endometrial epithelial cells with suppression of cyclin D1 gene expression.

Dienogest is a specific progesterone receptor agonist with potent oral endometrial activity and is used in the treatment of endometriosis. In this study, we examined the direct effects of dienogest on the proliferation of human endometrial epithelial cells using an immortalized cell line. 5-Bromo-2'-deoxyuridine incorporation into the cells was inhibited by dienogest and by progesterone (P(4)) in dose-dependent fashion at concentrations of 10(-8) mol/l or higher. To identify the target genes of dienogest and P(4), we screened the expression of 84 genes related to cell cycle regulation by real-time polymerase chain reaction after 6 h of treatment at a concentration of 10(-7) mol/l. Results showed that only cyclin D1 expression was significantly down-regulated, although expression of the other genes did not significantly change after dienogest or P(4) treatment compared with the control. In a time-course study during the first 24 h after drug treatment, dienogest and P(4) each produced a lasting decrease in the expression of cyclin D1 mRNA, followed by a decrease in cyclin E1 mRNA but not an increase in the expression of cell cycle inhibitor genes (p21, p27 and p53). These findings suggest that dienogest directly inhibits the proliferation of human endometrial epithelial cells with suppression of cyclin D1 gene expression.

Dienogest is a selective progesterone receptor agonist in transactivation analysis with potent oral endometrial activity due to its efficient pharmacokinetic profile.

Dienogest was introduced as an oral progestin. Yet its strong oral potency on endometrial activity is not clearly explained. To circumvent this situation, steroid hormone receptor profiling using transactivation assay and endometrial activity test in rabbits were carried out with determination of plasma drug concentration. Agonistic/antagonistic activity on human progesterone receptor (PR), androgen receptor (AR), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha), or estrogen receptor beta (ERbeta) were determined. Dienogest activate PR (EC50=3.4 or 10.5 nmol/l) with antagonistic activity on AR (EC50=420.6 or 775.0 nmol/l) but not agonistic nor antagonistic action on GR, MR (3000 nmol/l). Dienogest activate neither ERalpha nor ERbeta (3000 nmol/l). Progesterone activated PR with antagonistic activity on AR and on MR. Dydrogesterone showed a similar profile to progesterone. Norethisterone activated PR, AR, and ERalpha. Medroxyprogesterone acetate activated PR, AR, and GR. Danazol activated PR and AR. Collectively, dienogest has a good specificity to PR compared with the other drugs. By oral treatment, dienogest showed the strongest endometrial activity (ED50=0.0042 mg/kg) in McPhail test among other progestins (ED50 values for MPA, DYG, NES were 0.074, 1.9, >0.05 mg/kg, respectively). Dienogest showed higher plasma concentrations than those of the other progestins with higher doses. The estimated plasma concentration of dienogest at ED50 (3.66 nmol/l) was close to its EC50 value to activate PR. Thus, the stronger oral activity of dienogest could be explained simply by its in vitro potency on PR and its oral pharmacokinetic profile.

Dienogest inhibits C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 expression in human endometriotic epithelial cells.

OBJECTIVE: C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 is thought to contribute to the development of endometriosis by recruiting Th17 lymphocytes into endometriotic foci. The present study investigated the effects of dienogest, a progesterone receptor agonist used to treat endometriosis, on C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 expression by endometriotic cells. STUDY DESIGN: Effects of dienogest on mRNA expression and protein secretion of C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 induced by interleukin 1ß were assessed in three immortalized endometriotic epithelial cell lines, parental cells (EMosis-CC/TERT1), and stably expressing human progesterone receptor isoform A (EMosis-CC/TERT1/PRA+) or isoform B (EMosis-CC/TERT1/PRA-/PRB+). RESULTS: Dienogest markedly inhibited interleukin 1ß-stimulated C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 mRNA expression and protein secretion in EMosis-CC/TERT1/PRA-/PRB+, which was abrogated by the progesterone receptor antagonist RU486. In EMosis-CC/TERT1/PRA+, dienogest slightly inhibited C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 mRNA and protein. In EMosis-CC/TERT1, dienogest slightly inhibited C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 mRNA, but had no effect on C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 protein. CONCLUSION: Dienogest inhibited interleukin 1ß-induced up-regulation of C-C motif chemokine ligand 20 in endometriotic epithelial cells, mainly mediated by progesterone receptor B.

Endometriotic cyst fluid induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human immortalized epithelial cells derived from ovarian endometrioma.

OBJECTIVES: Endometriotic cyst fluid (ECF) contains a large amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and endometriotic cysts are exposed to strong oxidative stress, which may cause malignant transformation. In this study, ROS production by ECF was clinically analysed. METHODS: Human immortalized epithelial cells derived from ovarian endometrioma (EMosis-CC/TERT 1) were treated with ECF. In addition, ROS production in EMosis-CC/TERT 1 was measured, and its clinical significance was analysed. RESULTS: A total of 38 ECF samples were obtained from patients diagnosed with endometriotic cysts. In EMosis-CC/TERT1, significantly higher levels of ROS were induced by ECF than by the vehicle control and ferric nitrilotriacetate. There were no significant differences in ROS production by laterality and preoperative serum CA125 values. There were several patients whose cyst sizes were approximately 5 cm and had relatively high ROS production. Production of ROS by ECF was relatively higher in patients older than 40 years of age than in those younger than 40. DISCUSSION: Our study revealed that ROS are highly produced by ECF in EMosis-CC/TERT1 cells; therefore, exposure to ECF induced strong oxidative stress. Development of a therapeutic strategy to reduce ROS production might be useful for preventing malignant transformation of endometriotic cysts.

Dienogest, a synthetic progestin, down-regulates expression of CYP19A1 and inflammatory and neuroangiogenesis factors through progesterone receptor isoforms A and B in endometriotic cells.

Dienogest (DNG) is a selective progesterone receptor (PR) agonist and oral administration of DNG is used for the treatment of endometriosis. DNG is considered to act on PR to down-regulate pathophysiological factors associated with endometriosis. PR exists as two major isoforms, PR-A and PR-B, and their physiological functions are mostly distinct. It was suggested that PR isoform expression patterns are altered in endometriosis, but it is unknown whether the pharmacological effects of DNG are exerted through PR-A, PR-B or both. In the present study, we investigated the pharmacological effects of DNG through these PR isoforms on the expression of CYP19A1 which encodes aromatase and inflammatory and neuroangiogenesis factors associated with the pain and progression of endometriosis. We used immortalized human endometriotic epithelial cell lines that specifically express PR-A or PR-B in a spheroid cell culture system, and treated them with DNG. We evaluated messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of CYP19A1, prostaglandin (PG)E2 synthase (cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and microsomal PGE2 synthase (mPGES)-1), inflammatory cytokines (interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1) and neuroangiogenesis factors (vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and nerve growth factor (NGF)) using real-time polymerase chain reaction. In addition, PGE2 production was measured by enzyme immunoassay. We found that DNG down-regulated mRNA expression of CYP19A1, COX-2, mPGES-1, IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, NGF and VEGF, and PGE2 production in human endometriotic epithelial cell lines that specifically express either PR-A or PR-B. These results demonstrate that DNG activates both PR-A and PR-B and down-regulates the expression of pathophysiological factors associated with pain and progression of endometriosis. Our results suggest that DNG exerts therapeutic efficacy against the pain and progression of endometriosis regardless of PR isoform expression patterns.

Dienogest inhibits nerve growth factor expression induced by tumor necrosis factor-α or interleukin-1ß.

OBJECTIVE: Dienogest (DNG), a selective P receptor (PR) agonist, is used to treat endometriosis. To investigate whether DNG affects nerve growth factor (NGF) expression, we stimulated human endometrial epithelial cells (hEECs) with inflammatory cytokines. DESIGN: Prospective basic research study using immortalized hEEC lines. SETTING: Development Research, Mochida Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Japan. PATIENT(S): None. INTERVENTION(S): Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): In immortalized hEECs, NGF production induced by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) or interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) was evaluated in the presence or absence of the synthetic progestin DNG or endogenous P. The NGF messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein were measured using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and ELISA, respectively. The NGF bioactivity in the culture medium was measured by assaying neurite outgrowth of PC-12 cells. RESULT(S): Tumor necrosis factor-α and IL-1ß induced NGF mRNA and protein and increased NGF bioactivity in the culture medium. These activities were inhibited by DNG in a hEEC line that stably expresses PR. In contrast, in an hEEC line that constitutively expresses faint levels of PR, no inhibitory effect of DNG on NGF mRNA was detected. The NGF mRNA was also inhibited in hEEC lines that express only PR-A or only PR-B. CONCLUSION(S): Nerve growth factor is one of the key mediators that generates the pain associated with endometriosis. Dienogest inhibits NGF expression through PR-A and PR-B in hEEC, which may contribute to the pharmacological mechanisms of how DNG relieves pain in endometriosis.

Dienogest inhibits aromatase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression and prostaglandin E2 production in human endometriotic stromal cells in spheroid culture.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of dienogest (DNG) on the expression of aromatase and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) in human endometriotic stromal cells (ESCs). DESIGN: Experimental study in vitro. SETTING: University hospital. PATIENT(S): Seventeen patients with ovarian endometrioma. INTERVENTION(S): ESCs from chocolate cyst linings of ovaries were treated with DNG. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Expression of aromatase and COX-2 evaluated in spheroid cultures of human ESCs by real-time quantitative polymerase chain-reaction and immunocytochemistry, production of PGE(2) quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) DNA-binding examined by ELISA and immunocytochemistry. RESULT(S): The pharmaceutical actions of DNG on the expression of aromatase and COX-2 and the production of PGE(2) were examined using spheroid cultures of human ESCs. More aromatase, COX-2, and PGE(2) were expressed in spheroid cultures than in conventional ESCs monolayers. In the spheroid cultures, DNG (10(-7) M) and progesterone (10(-7) M) inhibited the expression of aromatase, COX-2, and PGE(2). DNG also inhibited NF-κB DNA-binding activity and reduced the immunocytochemical protein expression of aromatase, COX-2, and NF-κB p50 nuclear localization. CONCLUSION(S): Because DNG inhibits aromatase and COX-2 expression as well as PGE(2) production in ESCs, these pharmacologic features might contribute to a therapeutic effect of DNG on endometriosis.

Dienogest, a synthetic progestin, inhibits prostaglandin E2 production and aromatase expression by human endometrial epithelial cells in a spheroid culture system.

Prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) is a major mediator in the pathophysiology, and pathogenesis of gynecological diseases associated with abnormal endometrial disease with proliferation and inflammation, such as endometriosis. In this study, we investigated the effect of dienogest, a selective progesterone receptor agonist, on PGE(2) production and the expression of aromatase, an estrogen synthase, in human immortalized endometrial epithelial cells. Compared with monolayer culture, the cells showed enhanced PGE(2) production and expression of the PGE(2) synthases cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and microsomal prostaglandin E(2) synthase-1 (mPGES-1) in a spheroid culture system. Dienogest inhibited PGE(2) production and this effect was reversed by RU486, a progesterone receptor antagonist. Dienogest inhibited the PGE(2) synthases mRNA and protein expression, and the nuclear factor-κB activation. Moreover, the suppressive effect of dienogest on PGE(2) production was sustained 24h after the drug was withdrawn. Dienogest but not COX inhibitors inhibited aromatase expression. These results suggest that progesterone receptor activation reduces the gene expressions of COX-2, mPGES-1, and aromatase. Our findings suggest that the pharmacological mechanism of dienogest includes the direct inhibition of PGE(2) synthase and aromatase expression and may contribute to the therapeutic effect on the progression of endometriosis.

Dienogest inhibits Toll-like receptor 4 expression induced by costimulation of lipopolysaccharide and high-mobility group box 1 in endometrial epithelial cells.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of dienogest on the expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 in human endometrial epithelial cells. DESIGN: Prospective basic research study. SETTING: Pharmaceutical research center. PATIENT(S): None. INTERVENTION(S): Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): TLR4 in the immortalized progesterone receptor-expressing human endometrial epithelial cell line, EM-PR, was activated with lipopolysaccharide and high-mobility group box 1 (LPS/HMGB1) in the presence or absence of the synthetic progestin dienogest or endogenous progesterone. The production of interleukin (IL)-8, IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 and the mRNA expression of TLR4 were measured with the use of ELISA and real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction respectively and nuclear factor (NF)-κB reporter gene assays were performed. The role of TLR4 was assayed with the use of TLR4-siRNA-transfected cells. RESULT(S): Coadministration of LPS/HMGB1 induced the production of IL-8, IL-6, and MCP-1, TLR4 mRNA expression, and NF-κB activity in EM-PR cells, and dienogest inhibited all of these parameters. TLR4 knockdown using TLR4 siRNA reduced IL-8 production. CONCLUSION(S): Dienogest inhibits TLR4 mRNA expression and subsequent IL-8 production induced by TLR4 agonists via an inhibitory effect on NF-κB activation in human endometrial epithelial cells. This pharmacologic effect of dienogest may contribute to its therapeutic effect on abnormal inflammation of endometrium.

Peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP)-LE and PGRP-LC act synergistically in Drosophila immunity.

In innate immunity, pattern recognition molecules recognize cell wall components of microorganisms and activate subsequent immune responses, such as the induction of antimicrobial peptides and melanization in Drosophila. The diaminopimelic acid (DAP)-type peptidoglycan potently activates imd-dependent induction of antibacterial peptides. Peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP) family members act as pattern recognition molecules. PGRP-LC loss-of-function mutations affect the imd-dependent induction of antibacterial peptides and resistance to Gram-negative bacteria, whereas PGRP-LE binds to the DAP-type peptidoglycan, and a gain-of-function mutation induces constitutive activation of both the imd pathway and melanization. Here, we generated PGRP-LE null mutants and report that PGRP-LE functions synergistically with PGRP-LC in producing resistance to Escherichia coli and Bacillus megaterium infections, which have the DAP-type peptidoglycan. Consistent with this, PGRP-LE acts both upstream and in parallel with PGRP-LC in the imd pathway, and is required for infection-dependent activation of melanization in Drosophila. A role for PGRP-LE in the epithelial induction of antimicrobial peptides is also suggested.