Reproduction has immediate effects on female mortality, but no discernible lasting physiological impacts: A test of the disposable soma theory.

The disposable soma theory (DST) posits that organisms age and die because of a direct trade-off in resource allocation between reproduction and somatic maintenance. DST predicts that investments in reproduction accentuate somatic damage which increase senescence and shortens lifespan. Here, we directly tested DST predictions in breeding and nonbreeding female C57BL/6J mice. We measured reproductive outputs, body composition, daily energy expenditure, and oxidative stress at peak lactation and over lifetime. We found that reproduction had an immediate and negative effect on survival due to problems encountered during parturition for some females. However, there was no statistically significant residual effect on survival once breeding had ceased, indicating no trade-off with somatic maintenance. Instead, higher mortality appeared to be a direct consequence of reproduction without long-term physiological consequences. Reproduction did not elevate oxidative stress. Our findings do not provide support for the predictions of the DST.

A step toward precision gerontology: Lifespan effects of calorie and protein restriction are consistent with predicted impacts on entropy generation.

Understanding aging is a key biological goal. Precision gerontology aims to predict how long individuals will live under different treatment scenarios. Calorie and protein restriction (CR and PR) extend lifespan in many species. Using data from C57BL/6 male mice under graded CR or PR, we introduce a computational thermodynamic model for entropy generation, which predicted the impact of the manipulations on lifespan. Daily entropy generation decreased significantly with increasing CR level, but not PR. Our predictions indicated the lifespan of CR mice should increase by 13 to 56% with 10 to 40% CR, relative to ad libitum-fed animals. This prediction was broadly consistent with the empirical observation of the lifespan impacts of CR in rodents. Modeling entropy fluxes may be a future strategy to identify antiaging interventions.

Not feeling the heat? Effects of dietary protein on satiation and satiety in mice are not due to its impact on body temperature.

Dietary protein modulates food intake (FI) via unclear mechanism(s). One possibility is that higher protein leads to greater post-ingestive heat production (Specific dynamic action: SDA) leading to earlier meal termination (increased satiation), and inhibition of further intake (increased satiety). The influence of dietary protein on feeding behaviour in C57BL/6J mice was tested using an automated FI monitoring system (BioDAQ), simultaneous to body temperature (Tb). Total FI, inter meal intervals (IMI, satiety) and meal size (MS, satiation) were related to changes in Tb after consuming low (5%, LP), moderate (15%, MP) and high (30%, HP) protein diets. Diets were tested over three conditions: 1) room temperature (RT, 21 ± 1 °C), 2) room temperature and running wheels (RTRW) and 3) low temperature (10 °C) and running wheels (LTRW). The differences between diets and conditions were also compared using mixed models. Mice housed at RT fed HP diet, reduced total FI compared with LP and MP due to earlier meal termination (satiation effect). FI was lowered in RTRW conditions with no differences between diets. FI significantly increased under LTRW conditions for all diets, with protein content leading to earlier meal termination (satiation) but not the intervals between feeding bouts (satiety). Tb fell immediately after feeding in all conditions. Despite a reduction in total FI in mice fed HP, mediated via increased satiation, this effect was not linked to increased Tb during meals. We conclude effects of dietary protein on intake are not mediated via SDA and Tb.

The effects of graded calorie restriction XVII: Multitissue metabolomics reveals synthesis of carnitine and NAD, and tRNA charging as key pathways.

The evolutionary context of why caloric restriction (CR) activates physiological mechanisms that slow the process of aging remains unclear. The main goal of this analysis was to identify, using metabolomics, the common pathways that are modulated across multiple tissues (brown adipose tissue, liver, plasma, and brain) to evaluate two alternative evolutionary models: the "disposable soma" and "clean cupboards" ideas. Across the four tissues, we identified more than 10,000 different metabolic features. CR altered the metabolome in a graded fashion. More restriction led to more changes. Most changes, however, were tissue specific, and in some cases, metabolites changed in opposite directions in different tissues. Only 38 common metabolic features responded to restriction in the same way across all four tissues. Fifty percent of the common altered metabolites were carboxylic acids and derivatives, as well as lipids and lipid-like molecules. The top five modulated canonical pathways were l-carnitine biosynthesis, NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) biosynthesis from 2-amino-3-carboxymuconate semialdehyde, S-methyl-5'-thioadenosine degradation II, NAD biosynthesis II (from tryptophan), and transfer RNA (tRNA) charging. Although some pathways were modulated in common across tissues, none of these reflected somatic protection, and each tissue invoked its own idiosyncratic modulation of pathways to cope with the reduction in incoming energy. Consequently, this study provides greater support for the clean cupboards hypothesis than the disposable soma interpretation.

GPR55 deficiency is associated with increased adiposity and impaired insulin signaling in peripheral metabolic tissues.

Emerging evidence indicates that G-protein coupled receptor 55 (GPR55), a nonclassic receptor of the endocannabinoid system that is activated by L-α-lysophosphatidylinositol and various cannabinoid ligands, may regulate endocrine function and energy metabolism. We examined how GPR55 deficiency and modulation affects insulin signaling in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and liver alongside expression analysis of proteins implicated in insulin action and energy metabolism. We show that GPR55-null mice display decreased insulin sensitivity in these tissues, as evidenced by reduced phosphorylation of PKB/Akt and its downstream targets, concomitant with increased adiposity and reduced physical activity relative to wild-type counterparts. Impaired tissue insulin sensitivity coincided with reduced insulin receptor substrate-1 abundance in skeletal muscle, whereas in liver and epididymal fat it was associated with increased expression of the 3-phosphoinoistide lipid phosphatase, phosphatase and tensin homolog. In contrast, GPR55 activation enhanced insulin signaling in cultured skeletal muscle cells, adipocytes, and hepatocytes; this response was negated by receptor antagonists and GPR55 gene silencing in L6 myotubes. Sustained GPR55 antagonism in 3T3-L1 adipocytes enhanced expression of proteins implicated in lipogenesis and promoted triglyceride accumulation. Our findings identify GPR55 as a positive regulator of insulin action and adipogenesis and as a potential therapeutic target for countering obesity-induced metabolic dysfunction and insulin resistance.-Lipina, C., Walsh, S. K., Mitchell, S. E., Speakman, J. R., Wainwright, C. L., Hundal, H. S. GPR55 deficiency is associated with increased adiposity and impaired insulin signaling in peripheral metabolic tissues.

Limits to sustained energy intake. XXVIII. Beneficial effects of high dietary fat on lactation performance in mice.

Maximal animal performance may be limited by the ability of an animal to dissipate heat: the heat dissipation limitation (HDL) theory. Because the incidental heat produced during digestion [specific dynamic action (SDA)] varies among diets, the HDL theory predicts that lactating female mice consuming diets with lower SDA should have increased reproductive performance. Dietary fat has a lower SDA than dietary carbohydrate. Female mice were fed low (LF), medium (MF) or high (HF) fat diets (10, 45 and 60% energy from fat, respectively) from days 4-18 of lactation. HF- and MF-fed mice weaned significantly heavier litters than LF mice. This was because they not only consumed more energy [metabolisable energy intake (Emei); HF: 306.5±25.0, MF: 340.5±13.5 kJ day-1] at peak lactation, but also delivered more milk energy to their pups [milk energy output (Emilk); HF: 203.2±49.9, MF 229.3±42.2 kJ day-1] than the LF-fed mice (Emei=266.7±4.5, Emilk=164.60±30.59 kJ day-1). A mathematical model based on the predictions from the HDL theory showed that this effect was greater than predicted from differences in SDA between the diets. Fatty acid profiles of the diets, milk and pups showed significant correlations between the profiles. Besides reduced SDA, HF- and MF-fed mice were probably able to directly transfer absorbed dietary fat into milk, reducing the heat production of lactogenesis and enabling them to perform better than expected from the HDL model. In summary, HF and MF diets had beneficial effects on reproductive performance compared with the LF diet because they enabled mice to generate milk more efficiently with less incidental heat production.

Limits to sustained energy intake. XXVII. Trade-offs between first and second litters in lactating mice support the ecological context hypothesis.

Increased reproductive effort may lead to trade-offs with future performance and impact offspring, thereby influencing optimal current effort level. We experimentally enlarged or reduced litter size in mice during their first lactation, and then followed them through a successive unmanipulated lactation. Measurements of food intake, body mass, milk energy output (MEO), litter size and litter mass were taken. Offspring from the first lactation were also bred to investigate their reproductive success. In their first lactation, mothers with enlarged litters (n=9, 16 pups) weaned significantly smaller pups, culled more pups, and increased MEO and food intake compared with mothers with reduced litters (n=9, 5 pups). In the second lactation, no significant differences in pup mass or litter size were observed between groups, but mothers that had previously reared enlarged litters significantly decreased pup mass, MEO and food intake compared with those that had reared reduced litters. Female offspring from enlarged litters weaned slightly smaller pups than those from reduced litters, but displayed no significant differences in any of the other variables measured. These results suggest that females with enlarged litters suffered from a greater energetic burden during their first lactation, and this was associated with lowered performance in a successive reproductive event and impacted on their offspring's reproductive performance. Female 'choice' about how much to invest in the first lactation may thus be driven by trade-offs with future reproductive success. Hence, the 'limit' on performance may not be a hard physiological limit. These data support the ecological context hypothesis.

Recombination in diverse maize is stable, predictable, and associated with genetic load.

Among the fundamental evolutionary forces, recombination arguably has the largest impact on the practical work of plant breeders. Varying over 1,000-fold across the maize genome, the local meiotic recombination rate limits the resolving power of quantitative trait mapping and the precision of favorable allele introgression. The consequences of low recombination also theoretically extend to the species-wide scale by decreasing the power of selection relative to genetic drift, and thereby hindering the purging of deleterious mutations. In this study, we used genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) to identify 136,000 recombination breakpoints at high resolution within US and Chinese maize nested association mapping populations. We find that the pattern of cross-overs is highly predictable on the broad scale, following the distribution of gene density and CpG methylation. Several large inversions also suppress recombination in distinct regions of several families. We also identify recombination hotspots ranging in size from 1 kb to 30 kb. We find these hotspots to be historically stable and, compared with similar regions with low recombination, to have strongly differentiated patterns of DNA methylation and GC content. We also provide evidence for the historical action of GC-biased gene conversion in recombination hotspots. Finally, using genomic evolutionary rate profiling (GERP) to identify putative deleterious polymorphisms, we find evidence for reduced genetic load in hotspot regions, a phenomenon that may have considerable practical importance for breeding programs worldwide.

Genotyping-by-sequencing provides the first well-resolved phylogeny for coffee (Coffea) and insights into the evolution of caffeine content in its species: GBS coffee phylogeny and the evolution of caffeine content.

A comprehensive and meaningful phylogenetic hypothesis for the commercially important coffee genus (Coffea) has long been a key objective for coffee researchers. For molecular studies, progress has been limited by low levels of sequence divergence, leading to insufficient topological resolution and statistical support in phylogenetic trees, particularly for the major lineages and for the numerous species occurring in Madagascar. We report here the first almost fully resolved, broadly sampled phylogenetic hypothesis for coffee, the result of combining genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) technology with a newly developed, lab-based workflow to integrate short read next-generation sequencing for low numbers of additional samples. Biogeographic patterns indicate either Africa or Asia (or possibly the Arabian Peninsula) as the most likely ancestral locality for the origin of the coffee genus, with independent radiations across Africa, Asia, and the Western Indian Ocean Islands (including Madagascar and Mauritius). The evolution of caffeine, an important trait for commerce and society, was evaluated in light of our phylogeny. High and consistent caffeine content is found only in species from the equatorial, fully humid environments of West and Central Africa, possibly as an adaptive response to increased levels of pest predation. Moderate caffeine production, however, evolved at least one additional time recently (between 2 and 4Mya) in a Madagascan lineage, which suggests that either the biosynthetic pathway was already in place during the early evolutionary history of coffee, or that caffeine synthesis within the genus is subject to convergent evolution, as is also the case for caffeine synthesis in coffee versus tea and chocolate.

Mapping QTLs and association of differentially expressed gene transcripts for multiple agronomic traits under different nitrogen levels in sorghum.

BACKGROUND: Sorghum is an important C4 crop which relies on applied Nitrogen fertilizers (N) for optimal yields, of which substantial amounts are lost into the atmosphere. Understanding the genetic variation of sorghum in response to limited nitrogen supply is important for elucidating the underlying genetic mechanisms of nitrogen utilization. RESULTS: A bi-parental mapping population consisting of 131 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) was used to map quantitative trait loci (QTLs) influencing different agronomic traits evaluated under normal N (100 kg.ha(-1) fertilizer) and low N (0 kg.ha(-1) fertilizer) conditions. A linkage map spanning 1614 cM was developed using 642 polymorphic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) detected in the population using Genotyping-By-Sequencing (GBS) technology. Composite interval mapping detected a total of 38 QTLs for 11 agronomic traits tested under different nitrogen levels. The phenotypic variation explained by individual QTL ranged from 6.2 to 50.8%. Illumina RNA sequencing data generated on seedling root tissues revealed 726 differentially expressed gene (DEG) transcripts between parents, of which 108 were mapped close to the QTL regions. CONCLUSIONS: Co-localized regions affecting multiple traits were detected on chromosomes 1, 5, 6, 7 and 9. These potentially pleiotropic regions were coincident with the genomic regions of cloned QTLs, including genes associated with flowering time, Ma3 on chromosome 1 and Ma1 on chromosome 6, gene associated with plant height, Dw2 on chromosome 6. In these regions, RNA sequencing data showed differential expression of transcripts related to nitrogen metabolism (Ferredoxin-nitrate reductase), glycolysis (Phosphofructo-2-kinase), seed storage proteins, plant hormone metabolism and membrane transport. The differentially expressed transcripts underlying the pleiotropic QTL regions could be potential targets for improving sorghum performance under limited N fertilizer through marker assisted selection.

Population genomic and genome-wide association studies of agroclimatic traits in sorghum.

Accelerating crop improvement in sorghum, a staple food for people in semiarid regions across the developing world, is key to ensuring global food security in the context of climate change. To facilitate gene discovery and molecular breeding in sorghum, we have characterized ~265,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 971 worldwide accessions that have adapted to diverse agroclimatic conditions. Using this genome-wide SNP map, we have characterized population structure with respect to geographic origin and morphological type and identified patterns of ancient crop diffusion to diverse agroclimatic regions across Africa and Asia. To better understand the genomic patterns of diversification in sorghum, we quantified variation in nucleotide diversity, linkage disequilibrium, and recombination rates across the genome. Analyzing nucleotide diversity in landraces, we find evidence of selective sweeps around starch metabolism genes, whereas in landrace-derived introgression lines, we find introgressions around known height and maturity loci. To identify additional loci underlying variation in major agroclimatic traits, we performed genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on plant height components and inflorescence architecture. GWAS maps several classical loci for plant height, candidate genes for inflorescence architecture. Finally, we trace the independent spread of multiple haplotypes carrying alleles for short stature or long inflorescence branches. This genome-wide map of SNP variation in sorghum provides a basis for crop improvement through marker-assisted breeding and genomic selection.

Mice that are resistant to diet-induced weight loss have greater food anticipatory activity and altered melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) and dopamine receptor 2 (D2) gene expression.

Diet-induced weight loss varies considerably between individuals, but the mechanisms driving these individual differences remain largely unknown. Here we investigated whether key neuropeptides involved in the regulation of energy balance or reward systems were differentially expressed in mice that were prone or resistant to caloric restriction (CR) induced weight loss. Mice (n=30 males and n=34 females) were fed 70% of their own baseline ad libitum intake for 25days, after which their brains were collected and expression of various neuropeptides were investigated and compared between the 10 male and 10 female mice that showed the greatest (high weight loss, HWL) or lowest weight loss (LWL) (n=40 in total). HWL mice showed a differential neuropeptide profile to LWL in both sexes, characterised by increased expression of neuropeptide Y (NPY), agouti-related peptide (AgRP), leptin receptor (ObRb), and melanocortin 3 receptor (MC3R) in the arcuate nucleus. No changes in the expression of fat mass and obesity related gene (FTO) or suppressor of cytokine signalling 3 (Socs3) were observed. Levels of dopamine D2 receptor were decreased in the nucleus accumbens in HWL compared to LWL mice. HWL mice showed a stronger increase in food anticipatory activity (FAA) in response to CR than LWL mice. These results indicate that the mice prone to diet-induced weight loss experienced greater hunger, potentially driving their elevated FAA.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms generated by genotyping by sequencing to characterize genome-wide diversity, linkage disequilibrium, and selective sweeps in cultivated watermelon.

BACKGROUND: A large single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) dataset was used to analyze genome-wide diversity in a diverse collection of watermelon cultivars representing globally cultivated, watermelon genetic diversity. The marker density required for conducting successful association mapping depends on the extent of linkage disequilibrium (LD) within a population. Use of genotyping by sequencing reveals large numbers of SNPs that in turn generate opportunities in genome-wide association mapping and marker-assisted selection, even in crops such as watermelon for which few genomic resources are available. In this paper, we used genome-wide genetic diversity to study LD, selective sweeps, and pairwise FST distributions among worldwide cultivated watermelons to track signals of domestication. RESULTS: We examined 183 Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus accessions representing domesticated watermelon and generated a set of 11,485 SNP markers using genotyping by sequencing. With a diverse panel of worldwide cultivated watermelons, we identified a set of 5,254 SNPs with a minor allele frequency of ≥ 0.05, distributed across the genome. All ancestries were traced to Africa and an admixture of various ancestries constituted secondary gene pools across various continents. A sliding window analysis using pairwise FST values was used to resolve selective sweeps. We identified strong selection on chromosomes 3 and 9 that might have contributed to the domestication process. Pairwise analysis of adjacent SNPs within a chromosome as well as within a haplotype allowed us to estimate genome-wide LD decay. LD was also detected within individual genes on various chromosomes. Principal component and ancestry analyses were used to account for population structure in a genome-wide association study. We further mapped important genes for soluble solid content using a mixed linear model. CONCLUSIONS: Information concerning the SNP resources, population structure, and LD developed in this study will help in identifying agronomically important candidate genes from the genomic regions underlying selection and for mapping quantitative trait loci using a genome-wide association study in sweet watermelon.

Next-generation sequencing based genotyping, cytometry and phenotyping for understanding diversity and evolution of Guinea yams.

KEY MESSAGE: Genotyping by sequencing (GBS) is used to understand the origin and domestication of guinea yams, including the contribution of wild relatives and polyploidy events to the cultivated guinea yams. Patterns of genetic diversity within and between two cultivated guinea yams (Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayenensis) and five wild relatives (D. praehensilis, D. mangenotiana, D. abyssinica, D. togoensis and D. burkilliana) were investigated using next-generation sequencing (genotyping by sequencing, GBS). Additionally, the two cultivated species were assessed for intra-specific morphological and ploidy variation. In guinea yams, ploidy level is correlated with species identity. Using flow cytometry a single ploidy level was inferred across D. cayenensis (3x, N = 21), D. praehensilis (2x, N = 7), and D. mangenotiana (3x, N = 5) accessions, whereas both diploid and triploid (or aneuploid) accessions were present in D. rotundata (N = 11 and N = 32, respectively). Multi-dimensional scaling and maximum parsimony analyses of 2,215 SNPs revealed that wild guinea yam populations form discrete genetic groupings according to species. D. togoensis and D. burkilliana were most distant from the two cultivated yam species, whereas D. abyssinica, D. mangenotiana, and D. praehensilis were closest to cultivated yams. In contrast, cultivated species were genetically less clearly defined at the intra-specific level. While D. cayenensis formed a single genetic group, D. rotundata comprised three separate groups consisting of; (1) a set of diploid individuals genetically similar to D. praehensilis, (2) a set of diploid individuals genetically similar to D. cayenensis, and (3) a set of triploid individuals. The current study demonstrates the utility of GBS for assessing yam genomic diversity. Combined with morphological and biological data, GBS provides a powerful tool for testing hypotheses regarding the evolution, domestication and breeding of guinea yams.

Genetic diversity among INERA maize inbred lines with single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and their relationship with CIMMYT, IITA, and temperate lines.

BACKGROUND: Genetic diversity provides the capacity for plants to meet changing environments. It is fundamentally important in crop improvement. Fifty-nine local maize lines developed at INERA and 41 exotic (temperate and tropical) inbred lines were characterized using 1057 SNP markers to (1) analyse the genetic diversity in a diverse set of maize inbred lines; (2) determine the level of genetic diversity in INERA inbred lines and patterns of relationships of these inbred lines developed from two sources; and (3) examine the genetic differences between local and exotic germplasms. RESULTS: Roger's genetic distance for about 64% of the pairs of lines fell between 0.300 and 0.400. Sixty one per cent of the pairs of lines also showed relative kinship values of zero. Model-based population structure analysis and principal component analysis revealed the presence of 5 groups that agree, to some extent, with the origin of the germplasm. There was genetic diversity among INERA inbred lines, which were genetically less closely related and showed a low level of heterozygosity. These lines could be divided into 3 major distinct groups and a mixed group consistent with the source population of the lines. Pairwise comparisons between local and exotic germplasms showed that the temperate and some IITA lines were differentiated from INERA lines. There appeared to be substantial levels of genetic variation between local and exotic germplasms as revealed by missing and unique alleles. CONCLUSIONS: Allelic frequency differences observed between the germplasms, together with unique alleles identified within each germplasm, shows the potential for a mutual improvement between the sets of germplasm. The results from this study will be useful to breeders in designing inbred-hybrid breeding programs, association mapping population studies and marker assisted breeding.

Benefits of calorie restriction in mice are mediated via energy imbalance, not absolute energy or protein intake.

Caloric restriction (CR) results in reduced energy and protein intake, raising questions about protein restriction's contribution to CR longevity benefits. We kept ad libitum (AL)-fed male C57BL/6J mice at 27°C (AL27) and pair-fed (PF) mice at 22°C (22(PF27)). The 22(PF27) group was fed to match AL27 while restricted for calories due to cold-induced metabolism. The 22(PF27) mice had significantly lower body weight, lean mass, fat mass, leptin, IGF-1, and TNF-α levels than AL27 mice (p<0.001 for all). Manipulations over ~11 weeks resulted in significant differences in body temperature, physical activity, and expression of key genes linked to hunger in the hypothalamus. Survival was significantly greater in 22(PF27) compared to AL27 overall (p<0.001). CR in the context of equivalent energy and protein intake resulted in hormonal, metabolic, and physiological benefits and extended longevity. Hence, energy imbalance, rather than low energy or protein intake per se, mediates the benefits of CR.

Limits to sustained energy intake. XXI. Effect of exposing the mother, but not her pups, to a cold environment during lactation in mice.

The capacity of females to dissipate heat may constrain sustained energy intake during lactation. However, some previous experiments supporting this concept have confounded the impact of temperature on the mothers with the impact on the pups. We aimed to separate these effects in lactating laboratory mice (MF1 strain) by giving the mothers access to cages at two ambient temperatures (10 and 21°C) joined by a tube. Food was available only in the cold cage, but females could also choose go to this cage to cool down while their pups were housed in the warmer cage. Control animals had access to the same configuration of cages but with both maintained at 21°C. We hypothesised that if females were limited by heat dissipation, alleviating the heat load by providing a cool environment would allow them to dissipate more heat, take in more food, generate more milk and hence wean heavier litters. We measured maternal energy budgets and monitored time courses of core body temperature and physical activity. To minimise the variance in energy budgets, all litters were adjusted to 12 (±1) pups. Females in the experimental group had higher energy intake (F1,14=15.8, P=0.0014) and higher assimilated energy (F1,13=10.7, P=0.006), and provided their pups with more milk (F1,13=6.65, P=0.03), consistent with the heat dissipation limit theory. Yet, despite keeping demand constant, mean pup growth rates were similar (F1,13=0.06, P=0.8); thus, our data emphasise the difficulties of inferring milk production indirectly from pup growth.

Limits to sustained energy intake. XVI. Body temperature and physical activity of female mice during pregnancy.

Lactation is the most energy-demanding phase of mammalian reproduction, and lactation performance may be affected by events during pregnancy. For example, food intake may be limited in late pregnancy by competition for space in the abdomen between the alimentary tract and fetuses. Hence, females may need to compensate their energy budgets during pregnancy by reducing activity and lowering body temperature. We explored the relationships between energy intake, body mass, body temperature and physical activity throughout pregnancy in the MF1 mouse. Food intake and body mass of 26 females were recorded daily throughout pregnancy. Body temperature and physical activity were monitored every minute for 23 h a day by implanted transmitters. Body temperature and physical activity declined as pregnancy advanced, while energy intake and body mass increased. Compared with a pre-mating baseline period, mice increased energy intake by 56% in late pregnancy. Although body temperature declined as pregnancy progressed, this served mostly to reverse an increase between baseline and early pregnancy. Reduced physical activity may compensate the energy budget of pregnant mice but body temperature changes do not. Over the last 3 days of pregnancy, food intake declined. Individual variation in energy intake in the last phase of pregnancy was positively related to litter size at birth. As there was no association between the increase in body mass and the decline in intake, we suggest the decline was not caused by competition for abdominal space. These data suggest overall reproductive performance is probably not constrained by events during pregnancy.

The Effects of Graded Levels of Calorie Restriction: XX. Impact of Long-Term Graded Calorie Restriction on Survival and Body Mass Dynamics in Male C57BL/6J Mice.

Calorie restriction (CR) typically promotes a reduction in body mass, which correlates with increased lifespan. We evaluated the overall changes in survival, body mass dynamics, and body composition following long-term graded CR (580 days/19 months) in male C57BL/6J mice. Control mice (0% restriction) were fed ad libitum in the dark phase only (12-hour ad libitum [12AL]). CR groups were restricted by 10%-40% of their baseline food intake (10CR, 20CR, 30CR, and 40CR). Body mass was recorded daily, and body composition was measured at 8 time points. At 728 days/24 months, all surviving mice were culled. A gradation in survival rate over the CR groups was found. The pattern of body mass loss differed over the graded CR groups. Whereas the lower CR groups rapidly resumed an energy balance with no significant loss of fat or fat-free mass, changes in the 30 and 40CR groups were attributed to higher fat-free mass loss and protection of fat mass. Day-to-day changes in body mass were less variable under CR than for the 12AL group. There was no indication that body mass was influenced by external factors. Partial autocorrelation analysis examined the relationship between daily changes in body masses. A negative correlation between mass on Day 0 and Day +1 declined with age in the 12AL but not the CR groups. A reduction in the correlation with age suggested body mass homeostasis is a marker of aging that declines at the end of life and is protected by CR.

Fur removal promotes an earlier expression of involution-related genes in mammary gland of lactating mice.

Peak lactation occurs when milk production is at its highest. The factors limiting peak lactation performance have been subject of intense debate. Milk production at peak lactation appears limited by the capacity of lactating females to dissipate body heat generated as a by-product of processing food and producing milk. As a result, manipulations that enhance capacity to dissipate body heat (such as fur removal) increase peak milk production. We investigated the potential correlates of shaving-induced increases in peak milk production in laboratory mice. By transcriptomic profiling of the mammary gland, we searched for the mechanisms underlying experimentally increased milk production and its consequences for mother-young conflict over weaning, manifested by advanced or delayed involution of mammary gland. We demonstrated that shaving-induced increases in milk production were paradoxically linked to reduced expression of some milk synthesis-related genes. Moreover, the mammary glands of shaved mice had a gene expression profile indicative of earlier involution relative to unshaved mice. Once provided with enhanced capacity to dissipate body heat, shaved mice were likely to rear their young to independence faster than unshaved mothers.