Peripheral and central nervous system distribution of the CGRP neutralizing antibody [125I] galcanezumab in male rats.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this investigation was to examine the distribution of galcanezumab and a control immunoglobulin 4 antibody containing the same constant regions as galcanezumab, into peripheral and central tissues. METHODS: Galcanezumab and a control immunoglobulin 4 antibody were radioiodinated with Iodine-125 to specific activities of 0.11 mCi/mg and 0.16 mCi/mg, respectively. At 24, 72, and 168 hours following subcutaneous injection of either antibody (4 mg/kg), cerebrospinal fluid and plasma were obtained followed by saline perfusion to remove residual blood and collection of selected tissues for determination of Iodine-125 content by gamma counting. RESULTS: The peak plasma levels of Iodine-125 galcanezumab and Iodine-125 control immunoglobulin 4 were observed at 72 hours and remained high at 168 hours post-dose. The rank order of tissue levels was dura mater = spleen > trigeminal ganglia ≫hypothalamus = spinal cord = prefrontal cortex = cerebellum. Iodine-125 galcanezumab levels in peripheral tissue (dura mater, spleen, and trigeminal ganglia) averaged 5% to 11% of plasma, whereas all of the central nervous system (CNS) tissue levels and the cerebrospinal fluid levels were < 0.4% of plasma. Distribution of the antibodies into the dura mater and the trigeminal ganglia was similar to that observed in the spleen and significantly greater than exposure in the brain or spinal cord. CONCLUSIONS: The central levels of galcanezumab were relatively low, which would favor the dura mater and trigeminal ganglia as sites of action for its observed clinical efficacy. However, a central site of action cannot be excluded.

Human mast cells release the migraine-inducing factor pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP).

Background Many patients with migraines suffer from allergies and vice versa, suggesting a relationship between biological mechanisms of allergy and migraine. It was proposed many years ago that mast cells may be involved in the pathophysiology of migraines. We set out to investigate the relationship between mast cell activation and known neurogenic peptides related to migraine. Methods Cultured human mast cells were assayed for the presence of neuropeptides and their receptors at the RNA and protein level. Immunohistochemistry analyses were performed on tissue resident and cultured mast cells. Mast cell degranulation assays were performed and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) activity was measured with a bioassay. Results We found that cultured and tissue resident human mast cells contain PACAP in cytoplasmic granules. No other neurogenic peptide known to be involved in migraine was detected, nor did mast cells express the receptors for PACAP or other neurogenic peptides. Furthermore, mast cell degranulation through classic IgE-mediated allergic mechanisms led to the release of PACAP. The PACAP released from mast cells was biologically active, as demonstrated using PACAP receptor reporter cell lines. We confirmed existing literature that mast cell degranulation can also be induced by several neurogenic peptides, which also resulted in PACAP release. Conclusion Our data provides a potential biological explanation for the association between allergy and migraine by demonstrating the release of biologically active PACAP from mast cells.

An Allosteric Potentiator of the Dopamine D1 Receptor Increases Locomotor Activity in Human D1 Knock-In Mice without Causing Stereotypy or Tachyphylaxis.

Allosteric potentiators amplify the sensitivity of physiologic control circuits, a mode of action that could provide therapeutic advantages. This hypothesis was tested with the dopamine D1 receptor potentiator DETQ [2-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-1-((1S,3R)-3-(hydroxymethyl)-5-(2-hydroxypropan-2-yl)-1-methyl-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-2(1H)-yl)ethan-1-one]. In human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells expressing the human D1 receptor, DETQ induced a 21-fold leftward shift in the cAMP response to dopamine, with a Kb of 26 nM. The maximum response to DETQ alone was ∼12% of the maximum response to dopamine, suggesting weak allosteric agonist activity. DETQ was ∼30-fold less potent at rat and mouse D1 receptors and was inactive at the human D5 receptor. To enable studies in rodents, an hD1 knock-in mouse was generated. DETQ (3-20 mg/kg orally) caused a robust (∼10-fold) increase in locomotor activity (LMA) in habituated hD1 mice but was inactive in wild-type mice. The LMA response to DETQ was blocked by the D1 antagonist SCH39166 and was dependent on endogenous dopamine. LMA reached a plateau at higher doses (30-240 mg/kg) even though free brain levels of DETQ continued to increase over the entire dose range. In contrast, the D1 agonists SKF 82958, A-77636, and dihydrexidine showed bell-shaped dose-response curves with a profound reduction in LMA at higher doses; video-tracking confirmed that the reduction in LMA caused by SKF 82958 was due to competing stereotyped behaviors. When dosed daily for 4 days, DETQ continued to elicit an increase in LMA, whereas the D1 agonist A-77636 showed complete tachyphylaxis by day 2. These results confirm that allosteric potentiators may have advantages compared with direct-acting agonists.

Effects of corticotropin-releasing factor 1 receptor antagonism on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis of rodents.

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is the major hypothalamic neuropeptide responsible for stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA), resulting in the synthesis and release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. In a recent study, we reported the discovery of the CRF1 receptor antagonist, 3-(4-chloro-2-morpholin-4-yl-thiazol-5-yl)-8-(1-ethylpropyl)-2,6-dimethyl-imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine (MTIP), which has efficacy in preclinical models of stress-induced alcohol consumption. Because CRF1 is important in HPAA activation, we evaluated the effects of MTIP administration on rodent HPAA function. Initial studies established the MTIP doses required for brain and pituitary CRF1 occupancy and those associated with the inhibition of intracerebroventricular CRF on the HPAA in mice. Then, rat basal plasma corticosterone (CORT) concentrations were measured hourly by radioimmunoassay for 24 h after three daily doses of MTIP or vehicle. In these studies, the early phase of the nocturnal CORT surge was reduced; however, the area under the CORT curve was identical for the 24-h period. In subsequent studies, increases in plasma CORT due to direct pharmacological manipulation of the HPAA axis or by stressors were evaluated after MTIP treatment in mice. MTIP attenuated CORT responses generated by immediate bolus administration of insulin or ethanol; however, MTIP did not affect activation of the HPAA by other stressors and pharmacological agents. Therefore, MTIP can modulate basal HPAA activity during the CORT surge and reduced activation after a select number of stressors but does not produce a lasting suppression of basal CORT. The ability of MTIP to modulate plasma CORT after hyperinsulinemia may provide a surrogate strategy for a target occupancy biomarker.

PET ligands [18F]LSN3316612 and [11C]LSN3316612 quantify O-linked-ß-N-acetyl-glucosamine hydrolase in the brain.

We aimed to develop effective radioligands for quantifying brain O-linked-ß-N-acetyl-glucosamine (O-GlcNAc) hydrolase (OGA) using positron emission tomography in living subjects as tools for evaluating drug target engagement. Posttranslational modifications of tau, a biomarker of Alzheimer's disease, by O-GlcNAc through the enzyme pair OGA and O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) are inversely related to the amounts of its insoluble hyperphosphorylated form. Increase in tau O-GlcNAcylation by OGA inhibition is believed to reduce tau aggregation. LSN3316612, a highly selective and potent OGA ligand [half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) = 1.9 nM], emerged as a lead ligand after in silico analysis and in vitro evaluations. [3H]LSN3316612 imaged and quantified OGA in postmortem brains of rat, monkey, and human. The presence of fluorine and carbonyl functionality in LSN3316612 enabled labeling with positron-emitting fluorine-18 or carbon-11. Both [18F]LSN3316612 and [11C]LSN3316612 bound reversibly to OGA in vivo, and such binding was blocked by pharmacological doses of thiamet G, an OGA inhibitor of different chemotype, in monkeys. [18F]LSN3316612 entered healthy human brain avidly (~4 SUV) without radiodefluorination or adverse effect from other radiometabolites, as evidenced by stable brain total volume of distribution (VT) values by 110 min of scanning. Overall, [18F]LSN3316612 is preferred over [11C]LSN3316612 for future human studies, whereas either may be an effective positron emission tomography radioligand for quantifying brain OGA in rodent and monkey.

Distribution of NPY Y5-like immunoreactivity in the rat brain.

The pharmacology and brain mRNA distribution of the neuropeptide Y (NPY) rat Y5 (rY5) receptor has led to the hypothesis that this receptor might mediate the hypothalamic feeding response to NPY in addition to many other physiologic functions. However, through the use of autoradiographic techniques, only very low levels of Y5-like immunoreactive (Y5-ir) binding are detected in the rat brain. To localize the Y5 protein in the rat brain, polyclonal antibodies were raised to the carboxyl terminus of the rY5 receptor. The resulting antisera were affinity purified and characterized by specific binding to HEK293 cells that had been stably transfected with the rY5 receptor. Utilizing immunohistochemical techniques, we found a discrete pattern of Y5-ir in the rat brain. In initial studies, very low levels of Y5-ir were detected, and TSA amplification was required to visualize the staining. Areas with the highest levels of expression include the piriform cortex, supraoptic nucleus, and hippocampus. Areas with moderate levels of expression include the lateral septum, amygdala, arcuate nucleus, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, locus coeruleus, and cerebellum. With several exceptions, this pattern of distribution is consistent with earlier reports of rY5 mRNA and receptor protein expression.

Stress and central Urocortin increase anxiety-like behavior in the social interaction test via the CRF1 receptor.

Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) and Urocortin are important neurotransmitters in the regulation of physiological and behavioral responses to stress. Centrally administered CRF or Urocortin produces anxiety-like responses in numerous animal models of anxiety disorders. Previous studies in our lab have shown that Urocortin infused into the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala produces anxiety-like responses in the social interaction test. Subsequently, in the current study we prepared a specific CRF1 receptor antagonist (N-Cyclopropylmethyl-2,5-dimethyl-N-propyl-N'-(2,4,6-trichloro-phenyl)-pyrimidine-4,6-diamine, NBI3b1996) to examine in this paradigm. This CRF1 receptor antagonist inhibited the ex vivo binding of 125I-sauvagine to rat cerebellum with an ED50 of 6 mg/kg, i.p. NBI3b1996 produced a dose-dependent antagonism of Urocortin-induced anxiety-like behavior in Social Interaction test with an ED50 of 6 mg/kg, i.p. The compound had no effect on baseline social interaction. In addition, the CRF1 receptor antagonist prevented the stress-induced decrease in social interaction. These results provide further support for the CRF1 receptor in anxiety-like behavior and suggest this pathway is quiescent in unstressed animals.

Atomoxetine increases extracellular levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in prefrontal cortex of rat: a potential mechanism for efficacy in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

The selective norepinephrine (NE) transporter inhibitor atomoxetine (formerly called tomoxetine or LY139603) has been shown to alleviate symptoms in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). We investigated the mechanism of action of atomoxetine in ADHD by evaluating the interaction of atomoxetine with monoamine transporters, the effects on extracellular levels of monoamines, and the expression of the neuronal activity marker Fos in brain regions. Atomoxetine inhibited binding of radioligands to clonal cell lines transfected with human NE, serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) transporters with dissociation constants (K(i)) values of 5, 77 and 1451 nM, respectively, demonstrating selectivity for NE transporters. In microdialysis studies, atomoxetine increased extracellular (EX) levels of NE in prefrontal cortex (PFC) 3-fold, but did not alter 5-HT(EX) levels. Atomoxetine also increased DA(EX) concentrations in PFC 3-fold, but did not alter DA(EX) in striatum or nucleus accumbens. In contrast, the psychostimulant methylphenidate, which is used in ADHD therapy, increased NE(EX) and DA(EX) equally in PFC, but also increased DA(EX) in the striatum and nucleus accumbens to the same level. The expression of the neuronal activity marker Fos was increased 3.7-fold in PFC by atomoxetine administration, but was not increased in the striatum or nucleus accumbens, consistent with the regional distribution of increased DA(EX). We hypothesize that the atomoxetine-induced increase of catecholamines in PFC, a region involved in attention and memory, mediates the therapeutic effects of atomoxetine in ADHD. In contrast to methylphenidate, atomoxetine did not increase DA in striatum or nucleus accumbens, suggesting it would not have motoric or drug abuse liabilities.