Equity in family planning policies and programs in Uganda: conceptualization, dimensions and implementation constraints.

BACKGROUND: Equity is at the core and a fundamental principle of achieving the family planning (FP) 2030 Agenda. However, the conceptualization, definition, and measurement of equity remain inconsistent and unclear in many FP programs and policies. This paper aims to document the conceptualization, dimensions and implementation constraints of equity in FP policies and programs in Uganda. METHODS: A review of Ugandan literature and key informant interviews with 25 key stakeholders on equity in FP was undertaken between April and July 2020. We searched Google, Google Scholar and PubMed for published and grey literature from Uganda on equity in FP. A total of 112 documents were identified, 25 met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed. Data from the selected documents were extracted into a Google master matrix in MS Excel. Data analysis was done across the thematic areas by collating similar information. Data were analyzed using thematic content analysis approach. RESULTS: A limited number of documents had an explicit definition of equity, which varied across documents and stakeholders. The definitions revolved around universal access to FP information and services. There was a limited focus on equity in FP programs in Uganda. The dimensions most commonly used to assess equity were either geographical location, or socio-demographics, or wealth quintile. Almost all the key informants noted that equity is a very important element, which needs to be part of FP programming. However, implementation constraints (e.g. lack of quality comprehensive FP services, duplicated FP programs and a generic design of FP programs with limited targeting of the underserved populations) continue to hinder effective implementation of equitable FP programs in Uganda. Clients' constraints (e.g. limited contraceptive information) and policy constraints (inadequate focus on equity in policy documents) also remain key challenges. CONCLUSIONS: There is lack of a common understanding and definition of equity in FP programs in Uganda. There is need to build consensus on the definitions and measurements of equity with a multidimensional lens to inform clear policy and programming focus on equity in FP programs and outcomes. To improve equitable access to and use of FP services, attention must be paid to addressing implementation, client and policy constraints.

Unintended consequences of implementing non-pharmaceutical interventions for the COVID-19 response in Africa: experiences from DRC, Nigeria, Senegal, and Uganda.

INTRODUCTION: The coronavirus (COVID 19) pandemic is one of the most terrifying disasters of the twenty-first century. The non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) implemented to control the spread of the disease had numerous positive consequences. However, there were also unintended consequences-positively or negatively related to the nature of the interventions, the target, the level and duration of implementation. This article describes the unintended economic, Psychosocial and environmental consequences of NPIs in four African countries. METHODS: We conducted a mixed-methods study in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Nigeria, Senegal and Uganda. A comprehensive conceptual framework, supported by a clear theory of change was adopted to encompass both systemic and non-systemic interventions. The data collection approaches included: (i) review of literature; (ii) analysis of secondary data for selected indicators; and (ii) key informant interviews with policy makers, civil society, local leaders, and law enforcement staff. The results were synthesized around thematic areas. RESULTS: Over the first six to nine months of the pandemic, NPIs especially lockdowns, travel restrictions, curfews, school closures, and prohibition of mass gathering resulted into both positive and negative unintended consequences cutting across economic, psychological, and environmental platforms. DRC, Nigeria, and Uganda observed reduced crime rates and road traffic accidents, while Uganda also reported reduced air pollution. In addition, hygiene practices have improved through health promotion measures that have been promoted for the response to the pandemic. All countries experienced economic slowdown, job losses heavily impacting women and poor households, increased sexual and gender-based violence, teenage pregnancies, and early marriages, increased poor mental health conditions, increased waste generation with poor disposal, among others. CONCLUSION: Despite achieving pandemic control, the stringent NPIs had several negative and few positive unintended consequences. Governments need to balance the negative and positive consequences of NPIs by anticipating and instituting measures that will support and protect vulnerable groups especially the poor, the elderly, women, and children. Noticeable efforts, including measures to avoid forced into marriage, increasing inequities, economic support to urban poor; those living with disabilities, migrant workers, and refugees, had been conducted to mitigate the negative effects of the NIPs.

COVID-19 surveillance in Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Senegal and Uganda: strengths, weaknesses and key Lessons.

INTRODUCTION: As part of efforts to rapidly identify and care for individuals with COVID-19, trace and quarantine contacts, and monitor disease trends over time, most African countries implemented interventions to strengthen their existing disease surveillance systems. This research describes the strengths, weaknesses and lessons learnt from the COVID-19 surveillance strategies implemented in four African countries to inform the enhancement of surveillance systems for future epidemics on the continent. METHODS: The four countries namely the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Nigeria, Senegal, and Uganda, were selected based on their variability in COVID-19 response and representation of Francophone and Anglophone countries. A mixed-methods observational study was conducted including desk review and key informant interviews, to document best practices, gaps, and innovations in surveillance at the national, sub-national, health facilities, and community levels, and these learnings were synthesized across the countries. RESULTS: Surveillance approaches across countries included - case investigation, contact tracing, community-based, laboratory-based sentinel, serological, telephone hotlines, and genomic sequencing surveillance. As the COVID-19 pandemic progressed, the health systems moved from aggressive testing and contact tracing to detect virus and triage individual contacts into quarantine and confirmed cases, isolation and clinical care. Surveillance, including case definitions, changed from contact tracing of all contacts of confirmed cases to only symptomatic contacts and travelers. All countries reported inadequate staffing, staff capacity gaps and lack of full integration of data sources. All four countries under study improved data management and surveillance capacity by training health workers and increasing resources for laboratories, but the disease burden was under-detected. Decentralizing surveillance to enable swifter implementation of targeted public health measures at the subnational level was a challenge. There were also gaps in genomic and postmortem surveillance including community level sero-prevalence studies, as well as digital technologies to provide more timely and accurate surveillance data. CONCLUSION: All the four countries demonstrated a prompt public health surveillance response and adopted similar approaches to surveillance with some adaptations as the pandemic progresses. There is need for investments to enhance surveillance approaches and systems including decentralizing surveillance to the subnational and community levels, strengthening capabilities for genomic surveillance and use of digital technologies, among others. Investing in health worker capacity, ensuring data quality and availability and improving ability to transmit surveillance data between and across multiple levels of the health care system is also critical. Countries need to take immediate action in strengthening their surveillance systems to better prepare for the next major disease outbreak and pandemic.

Missed opportunities in tuberculosis investigation and associated factors at public health facilities in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) is high in Uganda; yet, TB case detection is low. The population-based survey on the prevalence of TB in Uganda revealed that only 16% of presumptive TB patients seeking care at health facilities were offered sputum microscopy or chest-X ray (CXR). This study aimed to determine the magnitude of, and patient factors associated with missed opportunities in TB investigation at public health facilities of Wakiso District in Uganda. METHODS: A facility-based cross-sectional survey was conducted at 10 high volume public health facilities offering comprehensive TB services in Wakiso, Uganda, among adults (≥18 years) with at least one symptom suggestive of TB predefined according to the World Health Organisation criteria. Using exit interviews, data on demographics, TB symptoms, and clinical data relevant to TB diagnosis were collected. A missed opportunity in TB investigation was defined as a patient with symptoms suggestive of TB who did not have sputum and/or CXR evaluation to rule out TB. Poisson regression analysis was performed to determine factors associated with missed opportunities in TB investigation. RESULTS: Two hundred forty-seven (247) patients with presumptive TB exiting at antiretroviral therapy (ART) clinics (n = 132) or general outpatient clinics (n = 115) at public health facilities were recruited into this study. Majority of participants were female (161/247, 65.2%) with a mean + SD age of 35.1 + 11.5 years. Overall, 138 (55.9%) patients with symptoms suggestive of TB disease did not have sputum and/or CXR examinations. Patients who did not inform health workers about their TB related symptoms were more likely to miss a TB investigation (adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR): 1.68, 95%CI; 1.36-2.08, P < 0.001). However, patients who reported duration of cough of 2 weeks or more were less likely to be missed for TB screening (aPR; 0.69, 95%CI; 0.56-0.86, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: There are substantial missed opportunities for TB diagnosis in Wakiso District. While it is important that patients should be empowered to report symptoms, health workers need to proactively implement the WHO TB symptom screen tool and complete the subsequent steps in the TB diagnostic cascade.

Influence of community scorecards on maternal and newborn health service delivery and utilization.

INTRODUCTION: The community score card (CSC) is a participatory monitoring and evaluation tool that has been employed to strengthen the mutual accountability of health system and community actors. In this paper we describe the influence of the CSC on selected maternal and newborn service delivery and utilization indicators. METHODS: This was a mixed methods study that used both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. It was implemented in five sub-counties and one town council in Kibuku district in Uganda. Data was collected through 17 key informant interviews and 10 focus group discussions as well as CSC scoring and stakeholder meeting reports. The repeated measures ANOVA test was used to test for statistical significance. Qualitative data was analyzed manually using content analysis. The analysis about the change pathways was guided by the Wild and Harris dimensions of change framework. RESULTS: There was an overall improvement in the common indicators across sub-counties in the project area between the 1st and 5th round scores. Almost all the red scores had changed to green or yellow by round five except for availability of drugs and mothers attending Antenatal care (ANC) in the first trimester. There were statistically significant differences in mean scores for men escorting their wives for ante natal care (ANC) (F(4,20) = 5.45, P = 0.01), availability of midwives (F(4,16) =5.77, P < 0.01), availability of delivery beds (F(4,12) =9.00, P < 0.01) and mothers delivering from traditional birth attendants (TBAs), F(4,16) = 3.86, p = 0.02). The qualitative findings suggest that strengthening of citizens' demand, availability of resources through collaborative problem solving, increased awareness about targeted maternal health services and increased top down performance pressure contributed to positive changes as perceived by community members and their leaders. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The community score cards created opportunities for community leaders and communities to work together to identify innovative ways of dealing with the health service delivery and utilization challenges that they face. Local leaders should encourage the availability of safe spaces for dialogue between communities, health workers and leaders where performance and utilization challenges can be identified and solutions proposed and implemented jointly.

Uganda's laboratory human resource in the era of global health initiatives: experiences, constraints and opportunities-an assessment of 100 facilities.

INTRODUCTION: Laboratories are vital in disease diagnosis, prevention, treatment and outbreak investigations. Although recent decades have seen rapid advancements in modernised equipment and laboratory processes, minimal investments have been made towards strengthening laboratory professionals in Africa. This workforce is characterised by insufficient numbers, skewed rural-urban distribution, inadequate qualifications, inadequate skill-mix and limited career opportunities. These factors adversely affect the performance of laboratory professionals, who are the backbone of quality services. In the era of Global Health Initiatives, this study describes the status of laboratory human resource and assesses the experiences, constrains and opportunities for strengthening them in Uganda. METHODS: This paper is part of a study, which assessed laboratory capacity in 21 districts during December 2015 to January 2016. We collected data using a laboratory assessment tool adapted from the WHO and USAID assessment tool for laboratory services and supply chain (ATLAS), 2006. Of the 100 laboratories, 16 were referral laboratories (hubs). To assess human resource constraints, we conducted 100 key informant interviews with laboratory managers and in charges. RESULTS: Across the facilities, there was an excess number of laboratory technicians at Health Center (HC) IV level by 30% and laboratory assistants were in excess by 90%. There was a shortage of laboratory technologists with only 50% of the posts filled at general hospitals. About 87.5% of hub laboratories had conducted formal onsite training compared to 51.2% of the non-hub laboratories. Less than half of HC III laboratories had conducted a formal onsite training; hospital laboratories had not conducted training on the use and maintenance of equipment. Almost all HC III laboratories had been supervised though supervision focused on HIV/AIDS. Financial resources, workload and lack of supervision were major constraints to human resource strengthening. CONCLUSION: Although opportunities for continuous education have emerged over the past decade, they are still threatened by inadequate staffing, skill mix and escalating workload. Moreover, excesses in staffing are more in favour of HIV, TB and malaria. The Ministry of Health needs to develop work-based staffing models to ensure adequate staff numbers and skill mix. Staffing norms need to be revised to accommodate laboratory technologists and scientists at high-level laboratories. Training needs to extend beyond HIV, TB and malaria.

Factors associated with use of malaria control interventions by pregnant women in Buwunga subcounty, Bugiri District.

BACKGROUND: In Uganda, the Government has promoted the use of intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy (IPTp) and insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) as malaria control strategies for pregnant women. However, their utilization among pregnant women is low. This study aimed at assessing factors associated with use of IPTp for malaria and ITNs by pregnant women in Buwunga sub-county, Bugiri District. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study, conducted in Buwunga sub-county, Bugiri District, employing quantitative data collection tools. A total of 350 household members were randomly selected to participate in the study. Data were entered and analysed using Epi info version 3.5.1; bivariable and multivariable analysis was done to assess the factors associated with use of IPTp and ITNs among pregnant women. RESULTS: The level of uptake of IPTp1 (at least one dose) was 63.7 % while IPTp2 (at least two doses) was 42.0 %. More than half (58.6 %) of the mothers had slept under an ITN the night before the survey. Slightly more than half (51.9 %) of the mothers mentioned stock outs as the major reason for not accessing IPTp and ITNs. The main factors that were statistically significant for IPTp2 uptake were the knowledge of mothers on IPTp2 (AOR 2.48 95 % CI 1.53-4.02) and providing women with free clean water at the antenatal care (ANC) clinic (AOR 3.63 95 % CI 2.06-6.39). Factors that were significant for ITN utilization included education level of mothers (AOR 2.03 95 % CI 1.09-3.78), ease of access (AOR 2.74 95 % CI 1.65-4.52), and parity (AOR 1.71 95 % CI 1.01-1.29). CONCLUSION: The level of uptake of the two recommended doses of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) tablets for malaria prevention (IPTp2) was low, slightly more than half of the mothers slept under an ITN the night before the survey. Appropriate measures to increase the level of uptake of IPTp2 and coverage of ITNs among pregnant women should be implemented, and these include providing health education about IPTp and ITNs, and ensuring that mothers are provided with free safe clean water at ANC clinic.

Uptake of reproductive, maternal and child health services during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda: A mixed methods study.

Use of reproductive health (RH), maternal, newborn and child health (MNCH) services in Uganda is suboptimal. Reasons for this are complex; however, service-delivery factors such as availability, quality, staffing, and supplies, contribute substantially to low uptake. The COVID-19 pandemic threatened to exacerbate existing challenges to delivery and use of high-quality RH and MNCH services. We conducted a mixed methods study, combining secondary analysis of routine electronic health management information system (eHMIS) data with exploratory key informant interviews (KII) to examine changes in health service uptake over the course of the pandemic and to understand service delivery adaptations implemented in response. We analyzed eHMIS data for four services (family planning, facility-based deliveries, antenatal visits, and immunization for children by one year), comparing them across four time periods: pre-COVID-19, partial lockdown, total lockdown and post lockdown. Additionally, KIIs were used to document adaptations made for continuity of health services. Use of services declined substantially during total lockdown; however, rebounded quickly to earlier observed levels, during the post lockdown for all four services, especially for immunization for children by one year. KIIs identified several health services delivery adaptations. At the community level, these included: community outreaches, training some mothers as community liaisons to encourage others to seek health services, and support from local leaders to create call centers to facilitate clients transport during travel restrictions. Health facilities creatively used space to accommodate social distancing and shifted providers' roles. District leadership reassigned health workers to facilities closest to their homes, provided vehicle passes to staff, and ambulances to transport pregnant women in critical need. WhatsApp groups facilitated communication at district level and enabled redistribution of supplies. Ministry of Health produced critical guidelines for continuity of health services. Implementing partners provided and redistributed commodities and personal protective equipment, and provided technical support, training and transport.

Improving testing capacity for COVID-19: experiences and lessons from Senegal, Uganda, Nigeria, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Background: African countries leveraged testing capacities to enhance public health action in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper describes experiences and lessons learned during the improvement of testing capacity throughout the COVID-19 response in Senegal, Uganda, Nigeria, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Methods: The four countries' testing strategies were studied using a mixed-methods approach. Desk research on COVID-19 testing strategies was conducted and complemented by interviewing key informants. The findings were synthesized to demonstrate learning outcomes across the four countries. Results: The four countries demonstrated severely limited testing capacities at the onset of the pandemic. These countries decentralized COVID-19 testing services by leveraging preexisting laboratory systems such as PCR and GeneXpert used for the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) to address this gap and the related inequities, engaging the private sector, establishing new laboratories, and using rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) to expand testing capacity and reduce the turnaround time (TAT). The use of digital platforms improved the TAT. Testing supplies were sourced through partners, although access to global markets was challenging. Case detection remains suboptimal due to high costs, restrictive testing strategies, testing access challenges, and misinformation, which hinder the demand for testing. The TAT for PCR remained a challenge, while RDT use was underreported, although Senegal manufactured RDTs locally. Key findings indicate that regionally coordinated procurement and manufacturing mechanisms are required, that testing modalities must be simplified for improved access, and that the risk-based testing strategy limits comprehensive understanding of the disease burden. Conclusion: Although testing capacities improved significantly during the pandemic, case detection and access to testing remained suboptimal. The four countries could benefit from further simplification of testing modalities and cost reduction. Local manufacturing and pooled procurement mechanisms for diagnostics are needed for optimal pandemic preparedness and response.

Consequences of school closures due to COVID-19 in DRC, Nigeria, Senegal, and Uganda.

In 2020 and 2021, Governments across the globe instituted school closures to reduce social interaction and interrupt COVID-19 transmission. We examined the consequences of school closures due to COVID-19 across four sub-Saharan African countries: the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Nigeria, Senegal, and Uganda. We conducted a qualitative study among key informants including policymakers, school heads, students, parents, civil society representatives, and local leaders. The assessment of the consequences of school closures was informed by the Diffusion of Innovations theory which informed the interview guide and analysis. Interview transcripts were thematically analysed. Across the four countries, schools were totally closed for 120 weeks and partially closed for 48 weeks. School closures led to: i) Desirable and anticipated consequences: enhanced adoption of online platforms and mass media for learning and increased involvement of parents in their children's education. ii) Desirable and unanticipated consequences: improvement in information, communication, and technology (ICT) infrastructure in schools, development and improvement of computer skills, and created an opportunity to take leave from hectic schedules. iii) Undesirable anticipated consequences: inadequate education continuity among students, an adjustment in academic schedules and programmes, and disrupted student progress and grades. iv) Undesirable unanticipated: increase in sexual violence including engaging in transactional sex, a rise in teenage pregnancy, and school dropouts, demotivation of teachers due to reduced incomes, and reduced school revenues. v) Neutral consequences: engagement in revenue-generating activities, increased access to phones and computers among learners, and promoted less structured learning. The consequences of school closures for COVID-19 control were largely negative with the potential for both short-term and far-reaching longer-term consequences. In future pandemics, careful consideration of the type and duration of education closure measures and examination of their potential consequences in the short and long term is important before deploying them.

Reporting of sexual and gender-based violence and associated factors among survivors in Mayuge, Uganda.

Background: Reporting of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) allows survivors to access support services to minimize the impact of the violence on their lives. However, research shows that most SGBV survivors do not report. Objective: We aimed to determine the proportion of survivors of SGBV in Mayuge District, Uganda, who report SGBV and the factors associated with reporting. Methods: Using a cross-sectional study design, we analyzed data of SGBV survivors in eight villages in Mayuge district collected in a baseline survey of a larger experimental study. Data were analysed using Modified Poisson Regression. Results: Of the 723 participants, 65% were female. Only 31.9% had reported the SGBV experienced. Reporting was 43% lower among survivors aged 45 years and older (p-value = 0.003), and 41% lower among survivors with higher than a primary school education (p-value = 0.005). Likewise, reporting was 37% lower among survivors who relied on financial support from their partners (p-value = 0.001). Female survivors were also 63% more likely to report (p-value = 0.001), while survivors who were separated/widowed were 185% more likely to report than those who were never married (p-value = 0.006). Conclusions: Reporting of SGBV by survivors in Mayuge was found to below.

Proportion of children aged 9-59 months reached by the 2017 measles supplementary immunization activity among the children with or without history of measles vaccination in Lilongwe district, Malawi.

BACKGROUND: The measles Supplementary Immunization Activity (SIA) was implemented in June, 2017 to close immunity gaps by providing an additional opportunity to vaccinate children aged between 9 months and up to 14 years in Lilongwe District, Malawi. This study was conducted to determine the proportion of eligible children that were reached by the 2017 measles SIA among those children with or without history of measles vaccination, and possible reasons for non-vaccination. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey using mixed methods was conducted. Caretakers of children who were eligible for the 2017 measles SIA were sampled from 19 households from each of the 25 clusters (villages) that were randomly selected in Lilongwe District. A child was taken to have been vaccinated if the caretaker was able to explain when and where the child was vaccinated. Eight Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) were conducted with planners and health care workers who were involved in the implementation of the 2017 measles SIA. Modified Poisson regression was used to examine the association between non-vaccination and child, caretaker and household related factors. A thematic analysis of transcripts from KIIs was also conducted to explore health system factors associated with non-vaccination of eligible children in this study. RESULTS: A total of 476 children and their caretakers were surveyed. The median age of the children was 52.0 months. Overall, 41.2% [95% CI 36.8-45.7] of the children included in the study were not vaccinated during the SIA. Only 59.6% of children with previous measles doses received SIA dose; while 77% of those without previous measles vaccination were reached by the SIA. Low birth order, vaccination history under routine services, low level of education among caretakers, unemployment of the household head, younger household head, provision of insufficient information by health authorities about the SIA were significantly associated with non-vaccination among eligible children during the 2017 measles SIA. Qualitative findings revealed strong beliefs against vaccinations, wrong perceptions about the SIA (from caretakers' perspectives), poor delivery of health education, logistical and human resource challenges as possible reasons for non-vaccination. CONCLUSION: Many children (41%) were left unvaccinated during the SIA and several factors were found to be associated with this finding. The Lilongwe District Health Team should endeavor to optimize routine immunization program; and community mobilization should be intensified as part of SIA activities.

Reporting of sexual and gender-based violence and associated factors among survivors in Mayuge, Uganda

background: Reporting of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) allows survivors to access support services to minimize the impact of the violence on their lives. However, research shows that most SGBV survivors do not report. Objective: We aimed to determine the proportion of survivors of SGBV in Mayuge District, Uganda, who report SGBV, and the factors associated with reporting. Methods: Using a cross-sectional study design, we analyzed data of SGBV survivors in eight villages in Mayuge district collected in a baseline survey of a larger experimental study. Data were analyzed using Modified Poisson Regression. Results: Of the 723 participants, 65% were female. Only 31.9% had reported the SGBV experienced. Reporting was 43% lower among survivors aged 45 years and older (p-value = 0.003), and 41% lower among survivors with higher than a primary school education (p-value = 0.005). Likewise, reporting was 37% lower among survivors who relied on financial support from their partners (p-value = 0.001). Female survivors were also 63% more likely to report (p-value = 0.001), while survivors who were separated/widowed were 185% more likely to report than those who were never married (p-value = 0.006). Conclusions: Reporting of SGBV by survivors in Mayuge was found to below

Prevalence and risk factors associated with tungiasis in Mayuge district, Eastern Uganda.

INTRODUCTION: Tungiasis is an endemic but neglected health problem in Uganda especially in resource poor communities. It is largely affecting rural communities in the Eastern, West Nile and Central regions. This study assessed prevalence and risk factors associated with tungiasis in Mayuge district, Eastern Uganda. METHODS: This was a cross sectional study that used a semi-structured questionnaire and observational checklist to collect quantitative data from 422 households in 12 villages. Prevalence of tungiasis was defined as presence of Tunga penetrans in the skin of any household member at the time of data collection. RESULTS: The prevalence of tungiasis was 22.5%. However, a big percentage 41.5% of households were reported to have had T. penetrans in the previous month while 49.5% had T. penetrans for more than one month. Majority (90.5%)of the participants used a pin, needle, or thorn to remove sand flea from infected body parts. Having dirty feet (AOR 3.86, CI (1.76-8.34)), dirty clothes (AOR 3.46, CI (2.00-5.97)), cracked house floor (AOR =6.28, CI (3.28-12.03)), dirty floor (AOR 3.21, CI (1.38-7.46)), littered compounds (AOR= 2.95, CI (1.66-5.26)) and rearing cattle (AOR 2.38, CI (1.28-4.45)) were associated with tungiasis. However, practicing preventive measures (AOR 0.51, CI (0.29-0.90)) was found protective for disease. CONCLUSION: Tungiasis is still a prevalent health problem in rural communities in Eastern Uganda due to a number of individual (host) and environmental factors. There is need to increase awareness regarding improvement in sanitation and hygiene to enable communities' implements interventions for prevention of T. penetrans.

Soil Contamination with Heavy Metals around Jinja Steel Rolling Mills in Jinja Municipality, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Soil contamination with heavy metals has severely increased over the last few decades, mainly from industrial wastes and human activities. Soil pollution is a source of danger to the health of people globally. OBJECTIVES: To assess the level of soil contamination with heavy metals around steel rolling mills in Jinja municipality, Uganda. METHODS: Four composite soil samples were collected from each of the sides of the Jinja steel rolling mills, dried and digested. The digested solution samples were analyzed in triplicates for the levels of lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni), using a flame atomic absorption spectrometer (Savant AA model 2009); the analytical process was monitored using analytical standard solutions. Data analysis was performed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 19 and Excel. Mean metal concentrations, standard deviations, medians, and skewness were obtained to describe heavy metal concentrations in the soil. Pollution load index and geo-accumulation indices were calculated to determine the level and extent of heavy metal contamination in the soil. RESULTS: The mean concentration loads of the heavy metals in soils around the Jinja steel rolling mills were 43.15 mg/kg for Pb, 28.16 mg/kg for Zn, 0.93 mg/kg for Cd, 0.22 mg/kg for Cr, 80.96 mg/kg for Cu, and 9.40 mg/kg for Ni. The metal load distribution around the industry was in descending order: Left-hand side > Downwind side > Right-hand side > Upwind side. Results for the geo-accumulation index were 1.30 for Pb, -1.31 for Zn, 2.63 for Cd, -7.25 for Cr, 2.99 for Cu, and -1.19 for Ni. The overall pollution load index was 1.08. CONCLUSIONS: The concentration levels of heavy metals around the steel rolling mills did not appear to be of serious concern, except for copper and cadmium, which showed moderate pollution and moderate to strong pollution, respectively. All heavy metals were within the limits of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) residential soil standards and the Dutch intervention soil standards. Overall, soils around the Jinja steel rolling mills were slightly polluted with heavy metals, and measures therefore need to be taken to prevent further soil contamination with heavy metals.