Zeta Potential and Size Analysis of Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-8 Nanocrystals Prepared by Surfactant-Assisted Synthesis.

The crystal nucleation and growth mechanism of monodispersed metal-organic framework nanoparticles were studied using time-resolved light dynamic, electrokinetic, and powder X-ray diffraction methods. We confirmed that zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) nanocrystals follow a nonclassical crystal growth pathway, where a fast nucleation occurs with dense liquid clusters or nanocrystals forming spontaneously when two precursors are mixed. We also explored the zeta potential and solvodynamic size changes of ZIF-8 prepared by a surfactant-assisted synthesis. Three modulators, including 1-methylimidazole (1-mIm), tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (THAM), and (1-hexadecyl)trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), were studied. We found that 1-mIm dramatically increases the rate of nucleation of ZIF-8. With an increasing amount of 1-mIm, which functions as a coordination modulator, the size increases, and the zeta potential of ZIF-8 decreases. Whereas THAM, as both a coordination and a deprotonation modulator, increases the size and zeta potential of ZIF-8 simultaneously, CTAB, as a long alkyl cationic surfactant, mainly adsorbs on the surface of ZIF-8, and the zeta potential of the formed ZIF-8 is controlled by the amount of CTAB in solution compared with its critical micelle concentration. Overall, we reveal that the modulator type and concentration can be used to control the size and zeta potential of the dispersed ZIF-8 nanocrystals in a colloid system. The experiments also enable identification of the nucleation and crystal growth processes of ZIF-8. The findings will be applicable to other nanocrystals in colloid systems, which are used for heterogeneous catalysis and guest molecular loadings.

E-learning as a tool of suicide prevention training: A meta-analysis and systematic review.

Suicide is a global health challenge. One prevention strategy is teaching individuals how to detect and respond to suicidality. These training have increasingly been delivered online. We searched WoS, Scopus, and PubMed from inception until the 20 September 2023 to evaluate e-learning efficacy as standardized mean changes and standardized mean differences. We synthesized main results using multilevel meta-analyses and subgroups using random-effects meta-analyses. Robins-I, RoB-II and trim-and-fill were used to assess the risk of bias. Of the 6516 initially screened articles, 26 were included. Overall, e-learning increased suicide prevention skills. Subgroups reported differing results: e-learning affected knowledge and self-efficacy more than behavior and attitudes. Efficacy, short duration, and low-cost suggest that e-learning may be feasible in teaching basic suicide prevention skills to lay people. However, current evidence suggests that health care professionals should not rely on e-learning as a training modality, except when no other form of training is available. Preregisteration: CRD42020218978.

The fearlessness about death scale's efficacy for differentiating suicide attempts from non-suicidal self-injury, a meta-analysis.

We used multivariate meta-analysis modeling variances and covariances of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and non-suicidal self-injury to investigate if the Fearlessness About Death scale differentiated between suicide attempts and non-suicidal self-injury. The systematic search yielded 27 studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The association of suicidal ideation with suicide attempts was comparable to the association of suicidal ideation with non-suicidal self-injury. The Fearlessness About Death scale weakened both associations to a comparative degree. These results cast doubt on the clinical utility of the Fearlessness About Death scale, as well as the self-assessment of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts and non-suicidal self-injury.

Oxytocin receptor gene methylation as a molecular marker for severity of depressive symptoms in affective disorder patients.

BACKGROUND: Oxytocin (OXT) is a neuropeptide and hormone involved in emotional functioning and also seems to play a role in moderating the stress response. Both preclinical and clinical studies point to an increased methylation status of the Oxytocin receptor (OXTR) promoter region with concomitant deficits in social, cognitive and emotional functioning. We hypothesize that methylation levels (%) of the oxytocin receptor promoter region correlate with the severity of depression symptoms and/or with the severity of childhood trauma within this present sample of affective disorder patients. METHODOLOGY: Eight hundred forty six (846) affective disorder patients of Central European origin were recruited at the Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy of the Medical University Vienna, the Karl Landsteiner University for Health and Science and Zentren für seelische Gesundheit, BBRZ-Med Leopoldau. Psychiatric assessment included a semi-structured diagnostic interview (Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry), the Hamilton Depression Scale and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Concomitantly DNA samples of peripheral blood cells were collected for Multiplexed and Sensitive DNA Methylation Testing. RESULTS: Our data suggests a positive but not significant association between OXTR promoter Exons 1-3 methylation levels and severity of depression symptoms as well as severity of emotional neglect in affective disorder patients and no association with childhood trauma. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings contribute to elucidate the role of OXTR in affective disorders, but further longitudinal studies in particular are necessary to broaden the current state of knowledge.

Allele frequency net database (AFND) 2020 update: gold-standard data classification, open access genotype data and new query tools.

The Allele Frequency Net Database (AFND, www.allelefrequencies.net) provides the scientific community with a freely available repository for the storage of frequency data (alleles, genes, haplotypes and genotypes) related to human leukocyte antigens (HLA), killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR), major histocompatibility complex Class I chain related genes (MIC) and a number of cytokine gene polymorphisms in worldwide populations. In the last five years, AFND has become more popular in terms of clinical and scientific usage, with a recent increase in genotyping data as a necessary component of Short Population Report article submissions to another scientific journal. In addition, we have developed a user-friendly desktop application for HLA and KIR genotype/population data submissions. We have also focused on classification of existing and new data into 'gold-silver-bronze' criteria, allowing users to filter and query depending on their needs. Moreover, we have also continued to expand other features, for example focussed on HLA associations with adverse drug reactions. At present, AFND contains >1600 populations from >10 million healthy individuals, making AFND a valuable resource for the analysis of some of the most polymorphic regions in the human genome.

Morphometric Analysis and Synopsis of Pseudognaphalium (Gnaphalieae, Asteraceae) in North America.

Pseudognaphalium Kirp. (Asteraceae, Gnaphalieae) consist of about 60 species mainly distributed in South, Central, and North America. As a first contribution toward a comprehensive taxonomic review of Pseudognaphalium, we perform here the first morphometric analysis of North American species, using UPGMA method for the construction of the dendrogram. Based upon these results we present a synopsis including a key to identify species and their associated synonymy. Thirty-seven species are recognized, two taxa are newly synonymized, Pseudognaphalium microcephalum under the name P. canescens and Pseudognaphalium semilanatum under the name P. semiamplexicaule, and two other names are confirmed as synonyms as previously proposed, Pseudognaphalium micradenium as a synonym of P. helleri and Pseudognaphalium crenatum as a synonym of P. viscosum. Lectotypes are newly designated for Gnaphalium beneolens, G. berlandieri (= Pseudognaphalium stramineum), Gnaphalium decurrens (= Pseudognaphalium macounii), G. leucocephalum, G. oxyphyllum, G. oxyphyllum var. semilanatum (= P. semiamplexicaule), G. semiamplexicaule, G. sulphurescens (= P. stramineum), G. thermale, and second-step lectotypifications are proposed for G. helleri and G. wrightii (= P. canescens). In addition, the first illustrations of Pseudognaphalium helleri and P. semiamplexicaule, and a colour figure of P. canescens and P. beneolens emphasizing the results of the morphometric analysis are provided.

The Neurostimulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC): Recommendations on Best Practices for Cervical Neurostimulation.

INTRODUCTION: The International Neuromodulation Society convened a multispecialty group of physicians based on expertise with international representation to establish evidence-based guidance on the use of neurostimulation in the cervical region to improve outcomes. This Neurostimulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC) project intends to provide evidence-based guidance for an often-overlooked area of neurostimulation practice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Authors were chosen based upon their clinical expertise, familiarity with the peer-reviewed literature, research productivity, and contributions to the neuromodulation literature. Section leaders supervised literature searches of MEDLINE, BioMed Central, Current Contents Connect, Embase, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed from 2017 (when NACC last published guidelines) to the present. Identified studies were graded using the US Preventive Services Task Force criteria for evidence and certainty of net benefit. Recommendations are based on the strength of evidence or consensus when evidence was scant. RESULTS: The NACC examined the published literature and established evidence- and consensus-based recommendations to guide best practices. Additional guidance will occur as new evidence is developed in future iterations of this process. CONCLUSIONS: The NACC recommends best practices regarding the use of cervical neuromodulation to improve safety and efficacy. The evidence- and consensus-based recommendations should be utilized as a guide to assist decision making when clinically appropriate.

Coparenting Intervention for Expectant Parents Affects Relationship Quality: A Pilot Study.

Research has shown that the transition to parenthood is a particularly challenging period of life which is often associated with a decline in relationship quality and an increase in mental health problems. Emerging parents often experience difficulties in coping with new tasks and challenges in the relationship, resulting in inadequate mutual support, stress, conflicts and even depressive symptoms. To support expectant parents in establishing an effective and strong coparenting alliance, we have employed an educational coparenting intervention to teach important coparenting skills. The intervention was a non-randomized case-control study with 126 expectant parents. The intervention group participated in a five-session intervention, whereas the control group received an information booklet and had an optional meeting postpartum. The purpose of this study was to ease the transition to parenthood in order to prevent postpartum conflict and depression. Parents in the intervention group (n = 34 couples) showed significantly fewer conflicts postpartum than before (Z = -3.28, p = 0.00), and scored better in postnatal delegated dyadic coping (ß = 0.25, p = 0.00, R2 = 0.32), a form of mutual support. Neither the intervention group (Z = -0.83, p = 0.40) nor the control group (Z = -0.86, p = 0.38) showed a significant increase in depression scores after childbirth. Although conflicts during the transition to parenthood declined and postnatal delegated dyadic coping strengthened, the study design does not allow to draw conclusion on group effects. Nevertheless, the promising results of this pilot intervention are a base for future studies.

Spinal Cord Stimulation for Loin Pain Hematuria Syndrome: Clinical Report.

Loin pain hematuria syndrome (LPHS) is a rare condition characterized by cryptogenic debilitating flank pain and microscopic or macroscopic hematuria. The pathophysiology of LPHS remains poorly understood, and diagnosis is made largely by exclusion of alternate pathology. Management strategies can vary widely and include chronic opioid medication and a variety of invasive procedures, including regional nerve blocks, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, local capsaicin infusion, and surgical renal denervation. Neuromodulation may provide a new paradigm of treatment for LPHS, potentially sparing patients from long-term complications of opiate therapy and invasive surgery. This report demonstrates the first case of successful symptomatic management of LPHS using spinal cord stimulation.

Clinical Components of Borderline Personality Disorder and Personality Functioning.

BACKGROUND: Impairment in personality functioning (PF) represents a salient criterion of the DSM-5 alternative diagnostic model for personality disorders (AMPD). The main goal of this study is to analyze the relationship of the borderline personality disorder (BPD) clinical components derived from the DSM-5 categorical diagnostic model (affective dysregulation, behavioral dysregulation, and disturbed relatedness) with personality organization (PO), i.e., PF, assessed by the Structured Interview of Personality Organization (STIPO). METHODS: STIPO and the Structured Clinical Interviews for DSM-IV (SCID-I and -II) were administered to 206 BPD patients. The relationship between PO and BPD components were studied using Spearman correlations and independent linear regression analyses. RESULTS: Significant positive correlations were observed between STIPO scores and several DSM-5 BPD criteria and comorbid psychiatric disorders. STIPO dimensions mainly correlated with disturbed relatedness and, to a lesser extent, affective dysregulation components. Each BPD clinical component was associated with specific STIPO dimensions. CONCLUSIONS: Both diagnostic models, DSM-5 BPD criteria and PO, are not only related but complementary concepts. The results of this study particularly recommend STIPO for the assessment of relational functioning, which is a major domain of the Personality Functioning Scale Levels of the DSM-5 AMPD.

Stable bioemulsifiers are produced by Acinetobacter bouvetii UAM25 growing in different carbon sources.

Acinetobacter species are identified as producing surface-active and emulsifying molecules known as bioemulsifiers. Production, characterization and stability of bioemulsifiers produced by Acinetobacter bouvetii UAM25 were studied. A. bouvetii UAM25 grew in three different carbon and energy sources: ethanol, a glycerol-hexadecane mixture and waste cooking oil in an airlift bioreactor, showing that bioemulsifier production was growth associated. The three purified bioemulsifiers were lipo-heteropolysaccharides of high molecular weight (4866 ± 533 and 462 ± 101 kDa). The best carbon source and energy for bioemulsifier production was wasted cooking oil, with a highest emulsifying capacity (76.2 ± 3.5 EU mg-1) as compared with ethanol (46.6 ± 7.1 EU mg-1) and the glycerol-hexadecane mixture (49.5 ± 4.2 EU mg-1). The three bioemulsifiers in our study displayed similar macromolecular structures, regardless of the nature (hydrophobic or hydrophilic) of the carbon and energy source. Bioemulsifiers did not decrease surface tension, but the emulsifying capacity of all of them was retained under extreme variation in salinity (0-50 g NaCl L-1), pH (3-10) and temperature (25-121 °C), indicative of remarkable stability. These findings contribute to understanding of the relationship between: production, physical properties, chemical composition and stability of bioemulsifiers for their potential applications in biotechnology, such as bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil and water.

[Psychometric Properties of the German Version of the Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire Revised (SBQ-R)]. / Psychometrische Eigenschaften der deutschen Version des Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire Revised (SBQ-R).

OBJECTIVES: The Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R) was developed by Osman et al. (2001) to economically assess different aspects of suicidality. It consists of 4 items. There are several critical points concerning item construction: (1) temporal frame (e. g. retrospective vs. prospective) and (2) response labels of item 1 and 3 (e. g. 2 alternatives with the same scoring). Information about psychometric properties of the German version of the SBQ-R were not available until now. The SBQ-R is assumed to be a unidimensional measure and is evaluated using a total score, although its dimensionality has never been tested. METHODS: The SBQ-R and several measures for convergent validity were assessed in a representative sample of the German general population (N=2497). Convergent validity was tested against symptoms of depression and anxiety (PHQ-4), as well as the core constructs of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicidal Behavior (IPTS) (INQ, ACSS-FAD). Unidimensionality of the SBQ-R was tested using confirmatory factor analysis and intercorrelations with the convergent measures were calculated. RESULTS: The initial model fit of the unidimensional solution was unsatisfactory. After inclusion of a correlated error term of item 2 and item 4 based on modification indices, the model fit was very good. Moreover the SBQ-R showed satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach's α=0.72). With the exception of the ACSS-FAD, all correlations with convergent measures were according to the theoretically proposed expectations. CONCLUSION: In principle the findings on the psychometric properties justify the use of the SBQ-R, although several critical points concerning item scoring remain unresolved. Moreover, sufficient unidimensional model fit was not possible without including correlated errors. Since suicidality is a frequently assessed construct in suicide research and as an exclusion criterion in clinical studies, it would be desirable to develop an economic, psychometrically sound and compelling instrument for the assessment of the different aspects of suicidality in future.

On hate crime victimization: Rates, types, and links with suicide risk among sexual orientation minority special interest group members.

Hate crimes remain pressing traumatic events for sexual orientation minority adults. Previous literature documents patterns in which hate crime victimization is associated with elevated risk for poor mental health. The present paper held 2 aims to advance literature. First, we investigated the rates and types of hate crime victimization among sexual orientation minority adults. Second, adopting a mental health amplification risk model, we evaluated whether symptoms of depression, impulsivity, or post-traumatic stress exacerbated the hate crime victimization-suicide risk link. Participants were 521 adult sexual orientation minority-identifying members of the National Coalition for Sexual Freedom (i.e., a bondage and discipline, and sadomasochism-identifying sexuality special interest group). Participants completed demographic and mental health inventories via online administration. Results showed: (1) low rates of total lifetime hate crime victimization and (2) higher rates of interpersonal violence compared to property crime victimization within the sample. Regression results showed: (1) independent positive main effects of all 3 mental health symptom categories with suicide risk; (2) an interaction pattern in which impulsivity was positively associated with suicide risk for non-victims; and (3) an interaction pattern in which post-traumatic stress was positively associated with suicide risk for hate crime victims and non-victims. Results are discussed concerning implications for trauma-informed mental healthcare, mental health amplification models, and hate crime and suicide prevention policies.

Triggers for attempted suicide in Istanbul youth, with special reference to their socio-demographic background.

OBJECTIVE: Suicidal behavior of young people is a topic of utmost importance because suicide is irreversible, and should be prevented. Knowing about the psychosocial background and the triggering events could help in preventing suicidal behavior. We therefore aimed at identifying psychosocial factors that may trigger suicidal behavior in youth. METHODS: We analyzed retrospectively the standardized records of 2232 youths aged ≤25 years, who were treated after a suicide attempt at emergency units of public hospitals in Istanbul, Turkey during a period of 1 year. We describe this population according to sex and socio-economic conditions, like educational, occupational, relationship status and link them with their reported reasons for suicide attempts. RESULTS: The majority of patients were female (81.6%, N = 1822 females, 18.4%, N = 410 males). Independent of their educational and occupational background, patients indicated most frequently intra-familial problems (females 45.8%, males 30.5%), intrapersonal problems (females 19.9%, males 18.5%), and relationship problems (females 11.3%, males 23.9%) as triggering reasons. CONCLUSIONS: Because intra-familial problems were the most frequently reported triggers of suicide attempts, preventive measures should focus on handling intra-familial conflicts. As sex differences were observed for the second-most common trigger-reasons, prevention should also focus on differentially handling intrapersonal and relationship conflicts better.

[Transitional and Adolescent Psychiatry in Austria: A Pilot Study on the Attitudes of Experts]. / Transitions- und Adoleszenzpsychiatrie in Österreich: Eine Pilotuntersuchung zur Sicht von Expert(innen).

Transitional and Adolescent Psychiatry in Austria: A Pilot Study on the Attitudes of Experts Abstract. OBJECTIVE: This pilot study establishes baseline data on the current situation of transitional processes in Austrian psychiatry. We sought to gather information on the specific problems and needs occurring during the transition of mentally ill adolescents from child and adolescent to adult psychiatry. METHOD: Professionals (psychiatrists, psychologists, psychotherapists) working in child and adolescent psychiatry and adult psychiatry (N = 86) were assessed by means of an online survey concerning their experience with the transition of young adults. RESULTS: Almost all of the subjects queried (98.8 %) considered the current system inappropriate, and the majority (70.9 %) thought that patients would not tolerate transition from youth to adult psychiatric institutions very well. Only 16.3 % reported having a structured transition protocol at their workplace. Further 83.7 % expressed the need to improve collaboration between adolescent and adult psychiatry. CONCLUSIONS: This sample of Austrian healthcare professionals describes large deficits regarding transitional issues in psychiatry. There is an urgent need to establish structured protocols for transition, especially since experiences occurring during this vulnerable period are crucial to the mental health of young people later in life.

Fentanyl Initiated Polymers Prepared by ATRP for Targeted Delivery.

The targeted delivery of polymers to neurons is a challenging yet important goal for polymer based drug delivery. We prepared a fentanyl based atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) initiator to target the Mu opioid receptor (MOR) for neuronal targeting. We incorporated our recently discovered rigid acrylate linking group into the initiator to retain a high degree of binding to the MOR and grafted random or block copolymers of poly(oligo(ethylene oxide) methacrylate)-block-(glycidyl methacrylate). Trifluoroethanol promoted amine ring opening of the glycidyl methacrylate was used for post-polymerization modification of the fentanyl initiated polymers to attach a near-infrared fluorescent dye (ADS790WS) or to build a targeted siRNA delivery system via modification with secondary amines. We examined the biocompatibility, cellular internalization, and siRNA binding properties of our polymer library in a green fluorescent protein expressing SY SH5Y neuroblastoma cell-line.

The effect of seasonal changes and climatic factors on suicide attempts of young people.

BACKGROUND: Seasonal changes and climatic factors like ambient temperature, sunlight duration and rainfall can influence suicidal behavior. METHODS: This study analyses the relationship between seasonal changes and climatic variations and suicide attempts in 2131 young patients in Istanbul, Turkey. RESULTS: In our study sample, there was an association between suicide attempts in youths and seasonal changes, as suicide attempts occurred most frequently during summer in females as well as in males. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between the mean temperature over the past 10 days and temperature at the index day and suicide attempts in females. After seasonality effects were mathematically removed, the mean temperature 10 days before a suicide attempt remained significant in males only, indicating a possible short-term influence of temperature on suicide attempts. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows an association between suicide attempts of young people and climatic changes, in particular temperature changes as well as seasonal changes. Therefore, the influence of seasonal changes and climatic factors on young suicide attempters should get more attention in research to understand the biopsychosocial mechanisms playing a role in suicide attempts of young people. As suicide attempts most frequently occur in young people, further research is of considerable clinical importance.

[Nonsuicidal self-injury in adolescence: a clinical guideline for diagnostics and therapy]. / Nicht-suizidales selbstverletzendes Verhalten (NSSV) im Jugendalter: Klinische Leitlinie zur Diagnostik und Therapie.

Objective: Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a frequent, clinically relevant phenomenon occurring in adolescence, which can be observed parallel to various mental disorders. Within Europe, Germany has one of the highest prevalence rates in youths, with the lifetime prevalence ranging between 25­35 %. To date a guideline on the treatment of self-injury and stereotypic motoric disorders has been available, the last having been updated in 2006 and expired in 2011. Methods: The guideline development group consisted of members of 11 medical, psychological, or psychotherapeutic professional associations and two members from patient and prevention groups. The guideline was developed in two meetings followed up by consecutive literature searches; it was adopted in a final consensus conference. The algorithm on the treatment of NSSI was approved in three rounds of a Delphi process. Results: Although there is solid evidence of NSSI from the fields of epidemiology and diagnostics, few studies report data on the longitudinal course as well as on the psychotherapeutic and adjuvant psychopharmacological treatment of NSSI in adolescence. The stepped care regimens in cases demanding somatic treatment were addressed interdisciplinarily. Conclusions: In accordance with the heterogeneous evidence, important points for the treatment of NSSI in adolescence were determined in a consensus conference. There is still a lack of knowledge on prevention as well as clinical interventions, both of which need to be addressed by further research.

The prevalence of Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) in a representative sample of the German population.

BACKGROUND: Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a proposed new "condition for further study" in the DSM-5. To date no prevalence data has been available on this diagnostic entity from a representative sample of the general population. METHODS: A representative sample of the German population (N = 2509, mean age = 48.8 years, SD = 18.1, female 55.4 %) completed the NSSI section of the German version of the Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Interview (SITBI-G). RESULTS: A history of NSSI at least once during lifetime was reported by 3.1 % of all participants, with higher lifetime prevalence rates in younger age groups. DSM-5 NSSI disorder criteria were met by 0.3 %. The most common function of NSSI was automatic negative reinforcement (e.g. to alleviate negative feelings). CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting rates for the proposed NSSI category in DSM-5 from a representative sample of the general population. In comparison to findings from community samples of adolescents, adults seem to have lower lifetime prevalence rates of NSSI, thus making it necessary to emphasize prevention and treatment efforts in younger age groups.

Deep Brain Stimulation for Obesity: From a Theoretical Framework to Practical Application.

Obesity remains a pervasive global health problem. While there are a number of nonsurgical and surgical options for treatment, the incidence of obesity continues to increase at an alarming rate. The inability to curtail the growing rise of the obesity epidemic may be related to a combination of increased food availability and palatability. Research into feeding behavior has yielded a number of insights into the homeostatic and reward mechanisms that govern feeding. However, there remains a gap between laboratory investigations of feeding physiology in animals and translation into meaningful treatment options for humans. In addition, laboratory investigation may not be able to recapitulate all aspects of human food consumption. In a landmark pilot study of deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the lateral hypothalamic area for obesity, we found that there was an increase in resting metabolic rate as well as a decreased urge to eat. In this review, the authors will review some of the work relating to feeding physiology and research surrounding two nodes involved in feeding homeostasis, nucleus accumbens (NAc) and hypothalamus, and use this to provide a framework for future investigations of DBS as a viable therapeutic modality for obesity.