[Non-invasive ventilation in infants with severe infection presumably due to respiratory syncytial virus: feasibility and failure criteria]. / Ventilation non invasive des nourrissons ayant une infection respiratoire sévère présumée à virus respiratoire syncitial: faisabilité et critères d'échec.

UNLABELLED: Beneficial effect of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) during non invasive ventilation (NIV) has been reported in infants with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection, but no study has analyzed the predictors of its failure. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility of NIV and to determine NIV failure criteria. POPULATION AND METHODS: All infants hospitalized in one PICU with presumed RSV infection between 2002 and 2006 were prospectively included. When respiratory support was needed, NIV was first started according to a pre-established protocol. RESULTS: One hundred and one infants, 43 females, 58 males, median age 49 days (range: 10-334), median weight 3.9 kg (range: 2,4-12) were included. RSV infection was confirmed in 84/101. Sixty-seven infants were transported by the paediatric medical transport system, 27 with NIV and 15 with invasive ventilation (IV). Fifteen infants were in IV at admission, 69 received NIV during their PICU stay (12 secondarily requiring IV) and 17 were never ventilated. A significant decrease in PCO2 with increase in pH was observed within 2 hours of NIV. Parameters associated with NIV failure were apneas, high values of admission PCO2 and H24 PRISM score. The 17 non-ventilated infants were older and had a lower severity score than those who were ventilated. CONCLUSION: In infants with RSV and needing respiratory support, NIV represented the sole method of respiratory support in 68% of cases. NIV failure criteria were apneas, high values of admission PCO2 and H24 PRISM score.

Reproducibility of the respiratory dead space measurements in mechanically ventilated children using the CO2SMO monitor.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the reproducibility of respiratory dead space measurements in ventilated children. DESIGN: Prospective study. SETTING: University pediatric intensive care unit. PATIENTS: Thirty-two mechanically ventilated children (0.13-15.4 years) who were clinically stable. METHODS: The single-breath CO(2) test (SBT-CO(2)) was recorded using the CO(2)SMO Plus from the mean of 30 ventilatory cycles during 1 h (at T0, T15, T30, T45, and T60). Airway dead space was determined automatically (Novametrix Medical Systems, USA), and manually by Bohr- Enghoff equations using data obtained by SBT-CO(2). At the end of the study period, arterial blood gas was sampled in order to calculate alveolar and physiologic dead space. Intrasubject reproducibility of measurements was evaluated by the intraclass correlation coefficient. Two-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate the relationships between time and measurements. The two methods for calculating airway dead space were compared by using two-tailed Student's t-test and Bland-Altman analysis. RESULTS: Airway dead space measurement had a good reproducibility during the 1-h period, whatever the method used (intraclass correlation coefficient: 0.84 to 0.87). No significant difference was observed with time. Airway dead space values from the SBT-CO(2) method were smaller than those from Bohr-Enghoff equations. Physiologic dead space values from the SBT-CO2 method were similar to those from Bohr-Enghoff equations. CONCLUSION: The measurement of airway dead space by the CO(2)SMO Plus was reproducible over a 1-h period in children requiring mechanical ventilation, provided ventilatory parameters were constant throughout the study. SBT-CO(2) analysis may provide a bedside non-invasive monitoring of volumetric capnography.

Admission plasma vasopressin levels in children with meningococcal septic shock.

OBJECTIVE: Vasopressin (AVP) response has been reported to be inappropriately low in adult established septic shock. We studied admission AVP levels in children with meningococcal septic shock (MSS). PATIENTS AND METHODS: All children with meningococcal infection admitted to our PICU between May 2001 and August 2002 were classified as MSS (persistent hypotension despite fluid therapy, with perfusion abnormalities and the need for vasoactive drug infusion for at least 24 h or until death), or meningococal infection without shock (fever and purpura, with or without meningitis). Blood samples were collected at admission and AVP levels were subsequently determined using Nichols Institute Diagnostics vasopressin assay. Eighteen of 19 children with MSS (7 deaths) and 15 without shock (no death) were included. RESULTS: In children with MSS median admission AVP level was 41.6 pg/ml (1.4-498.9) and in those without 3.3 pg/ml (1.6-63.8). In children with MSS the AVP level was not correlated with duration of shock and fluid expansion prior to AVP sampling, or with age-adjusted blood pressure and natremia at the time of blood sampling. AVP levels were higher in nonsurvivors, but not significantly so. Only one nonsurvivor had an admission AVP level below 30 pg/ml. CONCLUSIONS: In our children with established MSS who died the admission AVP level Delta were not inappropriately low. Further studies including serial AVP level assessments are needed before concluding that AVP administration is of little interest in children with MSS.

Plastic bronchitis mimicking foreign body aspiration that needs a specific diagnostic procedure.

OBJECTIVE: To report two children admitted to our emergency department with respiratory failure, one for status asthmaticus with pneumomediastinum and requiring mechanical ventilation and the other for high suspicion of foreign body aspiration. INTERVENTIONS: Bronchoscopy revealed obstructive plugs and permitted their extraction and their identification as bronchial casts after the immersion in normal saline. Allergy was suspected in the first one, and Hemophilus influenzae infection was present in the second. The outcome was favorable. CONCLUSIONS: Plastic bronchitis is an infrequent cause of acute life-threatening respiratory failure that can mimic foreign body aspiration or status asthmaticus. Bronchoscopic extraction must be performed urgently in the case of severe obstruction. This entity is probably underestimated as the casts with their specific ramifications are difficult to recognize. We recommend the immersion in normal saline of all plugs discovered in children with predisposing diseases mainly represented by infections, allergy, acute chest syndrome, and congenital cardiopathies.

Mechanical ventilatory support in infants with respiratory syncytial virus infection.

OBJECTIVE: To present a review of current knowledge of the use of mechanical ventilatory support in the management of infants with respiratory failure secondary to infection with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE and manual search for case reports and clinical trials that address management strategies for respiratory support of infants with RSV infection. Data Extraction and Synthesis: Critical appraisal of reported epidemiologic and clinical data regarding risk factors, pathophysiology, and efficacy of respiratory therapy. There is an increasing number of hospital admissions for RSV infection with a variable proportion of infants who need mechanical ventilatory support. The mortality rate is estimated to be <1% in infants without preexisting respiratory or cardiac disorders vs. <5% in those with preexisting respiratory or cardiac disorders. Optimal ventilator settings need to be refined according to the dominant obstructive or restrictive pattern with the aim to avoid barovolutrauma. The role of noninvasive ventilation and additional therapies (heliox, beta(2) agonists, surfactant) is not conclusively established. The indications for high-frequency oscillatory ventilation with the possible adjunction of inhaled nitric oxide deserve further study. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation plays a minor role in severe cases that are refractory to conventional treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Conventional ventilation strategies are usually adequate for treating infants with severe RSV infection. Particular attention must be paid to the dominant pathophysiologic mechanism in a given condition. Prospective trials are needed to validate alternative therapeutic options and to improve the outcome of the rare but most severe cases that are difficult to control.

[Does selective digestive decontamination prevent nosocomial infections?]. / Est-ce que la décontamination digestive sélective prévient les infections nosocomiales ?

Paediatric intensive care and haematological units are ideal sites for the development of nosocomial infections. These infections remain a significant source of mortality and morbidity and increase length of stay and costs. Selective digestive decontamination (SDD) includes topical antibiotics during the entire intensive care unit (ICU) stay, parenteral antibiotic administered for three to five days, hand hygiene and surveillance cultures of throat and rectum. Its use is based on the observation that resistant bacteria are often imported by the patients themselves, and the fact that transmission via the hands of carers could be responsible only for infections occurring after one week. In adult patients, seven meta-analyses have demonstrated that SDD reduces the odds ratio for lower airway infections, and sometimes mortality (particularly in surgical and trauma patients). The main criticism against SDD is the possible emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria, which is a growing problem in Europe and United States of America. Only four studies on SDD in children have been reported in the literature: due to methodological weaknesses and small size of samples, definitive conclusion cannot be drawn. However, one study in a 20 bed paediatric intensive care unit has demonstrated that SDD prevent both infections and the emergence of resistant bacteria. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that more than 50% of children carrying resistant bacteria are detected within 24 hours of admission, suggesting that they import the resistant strains onto the intensive care unit. Factors that predict facility, administration of i.v. antibiotics within the past 12 months, previous intensive care unit admission and hospitalization of a household contact within the past 12 months. As suggested by several authors, the term selective should mean selection of appropriate patient groups (those at high risk of nosocomial infection, e.g. patients mechanically ventilated for at least 48 hours) and units (excluding those where multiresistance is endemic). Obviously, surveillance of patient and unit bacterial ecology and improvement of antibiotic policy must be reinforced.

[Treatment of meningococcal purpura fulminans]. / Traitement du purpura fulminans méningococcique.

In France, the incidence of meningococcal infections is increasing. The most severe presentation, called purpura fulminans, has a death rate of 20-25%; 5 to 20% of the survivors need skin grafts and/or amputations. Diagnosis of invasive meningococcal infection is very difficult when purpura and "toxic" appearance are absent: one should take into account parents' impression of their ill child. This diagnosis must be evoked in any child presenting with febrile purpura (like in the United Kingdom, parents should be encouraged to use the "tumbler test" to identify a vasculitic rash); a fulminant form is to be suspected in the presence of only one ecchymosis and signs of infection, remembering that recognition of shock is difficult in children. Recently, the Health Authority has recommended to administer a third generation cephalosporin promptly (before biological investigations) for any child with signs of infection and a necrotic or ecchymotic purpura (> 3 mm of diameter), and then to refer the patient to the hospital. By grouping the patients from 7 studies, it can be observed that preadmission antibiotic administration has a protective effect on mortality (odds ratio: 0.36; 95% confidence interval: 0.23-0.56); a negative effect was observed in only one of these series. Children with purpura fulminans should be referred to a paediatric intensive care unit. Management includes antibiotics, steroids, fluid resuscitation and catecholamines (be aware of hypoglycaemia, particularly in infants, and hypocalcaemia). Treatment of cutaneous necrosis and distal ischemia is difficult and still controversial: antithrombin, protein C, tissue plasminogen activator and vasodilator infusion have no proven efficacy. Cases must be rapidly notified to the Public Health Service who will institute chemoprophylaxis for close contacts. Given the predominance of serogroup B in France, we hope that an efficient vaccine will soon become available.

[Purpura fulminans and coxsackie B2 co-infection]. / Purpura fulminans et co-infection à coxsackie B2.

INTRODUCTION: During septic shock in children, myocardial deficiency usually lasts 3 to 6 days. When prolonged, an other etiology should be looked for. OBSERVATION: A 29 month-old child presented with purpura fulminans, probably due to Neisseria meningitidis. Positivity of the serodiagnostic for coxsackie B2, performed because of persisting myocardial deficiency, evoked diagnosis of a coxsackie B2 co-infection. DISCUSSION: Abnormally prolonged myocardial deficiency during purpura fulminans must lead to the search for a congenital, metabolic or infectious cardiomyopathy.

[Multi-parameter indices of weaning from mechanical ventilation in children]. / Indices multi-paramétriques pour le sevrage de la ventilation mecanique chez l'enfant.

UNLABELLED: Simple clinical markers have poor sensitivity; specificity and predictive value in both infants and adults when predicting the success of weaning from mechanical ventilation. Recently, multi-parametric indices, such as the CROP (Compliance-Respiratory Rate-Oxygenation-Pressure) and the RSB (Rapid-Shallow-Breathing) have been used in adults and subsequently in children. The aim of this study was to test the value of the pediatric CROP and RSB (CROPp, RSBp) and the accuracy of a simplified pediatric CROP (CROPpS) that does not require an arterial blood gas sample. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This prospective study was conducted in a pediatric ICU which does not admit neonates. All infants were intubated and ventilated at the time of entry. Spontaneous tidal volume and maximal negative inspiratory pressure, that are required to assess and calculate the indices, were measured using a Fleish pneumotachograph and a unidirectional valve. The other parameters were recorded or calculated. A maximum 4 hour-duration trial of spontaneous ventilation was then performed. Weaning failure was defined as the requirement of re-ventilation within 48 hours of extubation. The discriminant power of CROPp and RSBp was determined by calculating the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The best cut-off value of the CROPpS was determined by chi2 optimisation. RESULTS: 39 children (20 males) were included in the trial. They had a median age of 3.2 years and a median duration of mechanical ventilation of 1.3 days. 89.7% of children were successfully weaned of mechanical ventilation. Sensitivity of CROP, and RSB, was 97% and 94%, specificity was 0% and 0%, positive predictive value was 89% and 89%, and negative predictive value was 0% and 0% respectively; the area under the ROC curve was 0.57 and 0.74. The CROP,S was found to be as accurate as the CROP, index using the same cut-off value. Comparison of the 2 groups (success, failure) revealed a significant difference in duration of ventilation (longer in the failure group). CONCLUSION: Even though they correctly classified 87% and 85% of patients respectively, the CROPp and RSBp are not good predictors of weaning from mechanical ventilation as the area under the ROC curve is less than 0.80. Other indices need to be evaluated.

VAC® therapy a therapeutic alternative in giant omphalocele treatment: a multicenter study.

Giant omphalocele is associated to morbidity and mortality because of the strain the reintegrated herniated mass places on the hemodynamic equilibrium and breathing functions of affected infants. Currently, care management consists in a reintegration in one time or progressive reintegration. We report here a multicenter retrospective study about alternative management by VAC® therapy for giant omphaloceles. The study included three patients (1 girl, 2 boys) presenting with giant omphaloceles, born at full term in three different University Hospitals (prenatal diagnosis, normal karyotype). VAC® therapy was implemented at different times according to the cases (at Day 11, Month 1 and Month 5 after birth). The initial pressure applied was -10 mmHg progressively increased to -50 mmHg. A middle size VAC GranuFoam Silver® Dressing was used in all cases. Wound healing occurred at Month 4 for the first case, Month 6 and Month 8 for the other two. VAC® therapy is a good alternative for the care management of giant omphaloceles with more advantages especially when using prosthetic material. We also aimed at refining the most adapted indications in these specific situations, and finally we envisioned a harmonization of care for these children.

[Weaning from invasive mechanical ventilation in pediatric patients (excluding premature neonates)]. / Le sevrage de la ventilation mécanique invasive en réanimation pédiatrique (à l'exclusion des prématurés).

The process of weaning from mechanical ventilation (WMV) is the same in children as in adults. In the pediatric literature, weaning failure rate ranges from 1.4 to 34%. So far, no indices of weaning success have been demonstrated to be sufficiently accurate. The criteria for assessing readiness to wean, which must be screened daily, have neither been validated nor adapted to the pediatric population. The spontaneous breathing test (SBT), the reference screening test for weaning, precedes extubation; it can be achieved with pressure support ventilation or spontaneous breathing (T piece or canopy or flow-inflating bag). A standardized weaning protocol (which can be computer driven) was used in only three pediatric studies and the impact on shortening the duration of mechanical ventilation has not yet been demonstrated. It should be paired with a sedative interruption protocol. Weaning criteria, SBT criteria, and/or protocol tolerance are guides, but clinicians must individualize decisions to use these criteria. The use of noninvasive ventilation is increasing and its place in weaning protocols for children needs to be determined; it might modify the definitions of weaning failure and weaning success in the future.

Are the GFRUP's recommendations for withholding or withdrawing treatments in critically ill children applicable? Results of a two-year survey.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate feasibility of the guidelines of the Groupe Francophone de Réanimation et Urgence Pédiatriques (French-speaking group of paediatric intensive and emergency care; GFRUP) for limitation of treatments in the paediatric intensive care unit (PICU). DESIGN: A 2-year prospective survey. SETTING: A 12-bed PICU at the Hôpital Jeanne de Flandre, Lille, France. PATIENTS: Were included when limitation of treatments was expected. RESULTS: Of 967 children admitted, 55 were included with a 2-day median delay. They were younger than others (24 v 60 months), had a higher paediatric risk of mortality (PRISM) score (14 v 4), and a higher paediatric overall performance category (POPC) score at admission (2 v 1); all p<0.002. 34 (50% of total deaths) children died. A limitation decision was made without meeting for 7 children who died: 6 received do-not-resuscitate orders (DNROs) and 1 received withholding decision. Decision-making meetings were organised for 31 children, and the following decisions were made: 12 DNROs (6 deaths and 6 survivals), 4 withholding (1 death and 3 survivals), with 14 withdrawing (14 deaths) and 1 continuing treatment (survival). After limitation, 21 (31% of total deaths) children died and 10 survived (POPC score 4). 13 procedures were interrupted because of death and 11 because of clinical improvement (POPC score 4). Parents' opinions were obtained after 4 family conferences (for a total of 110 min), 3 days after inclusion. The first meeting was planned for 6 days after inclusion and held on the 7th day after inclusion; 80% of parents were immediately informed of the decision, which was implemented after half a day. CONCLUSIONS: GFRUPs procedure was applicable in most cases. The main difficulties were anticipating the correct date for the meeting and involving nurses in the procedure. Children for whom the procedure was interrupted because of clinical improvement and who survived in poor condition without a formal decision pointed out the need for medical criteria for questioning, which should systematically lead to a formal decision-making process.

Neonatal cholestasis and infantile Gaucher disease: a case report.

AIM: To report on clinical complications of liver disease occurring during Gaucher disease. METHODS: A case of Gaucher disease was revealed by neonatal cholestasis and early onset of portal hypertension. RESULTS: At 7 d of age, a newborn was admitted for cholestasis associated with hepatosplenomegaly and thrombocytopenia. At that time, bone marrow aspirate and liver biopsy did not reveal any engorged cells. The clinical course was marked by early progressive portal hypertension, and the patient died of uncontrollable upper gastrointestinal bleeding. The histological results of the postmortem showed that Gaucher cells were present in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. The diagnosis was confirmed by enzymatic studies. CONCLUSION: Isolated neonatal cholestasis could be the first sign of Gaucher disease. Gaucher disease should always be considered in such circumstances, even if, initially, the bone marrow aspirate and liver biopsy do not reveal any engorged cells.