Factors associated with door-in-door-out times in large vessel occlusion stroke patients undergoing endovascular therapy.

INTRODUCTION: In the management of large vessel occlusion stroke (LVOS), patients are frequently evaluated first at a non-endovascular stroke center and later transferred to an endovascular stroke center (ESC) for endovascular treatment (EVT). The door-in-door-out time (DIDO) is frequently used as a benchmark for transferring hospitals though there is no universally accepted nor evidenced-based DIDO time. The goal of this study was to identify factors affecting DIDO times in LVOS patients who ultimately underwent EVT. METHODS: The Optimizing Prehospital Use of Stroke Systems of Care-Reacting to Changing Paradigms (OPUS-REACH) registry is comprised of all LVOS patients who underwent EVT at one of nine endovascular centers in the Northeast United States between 2015 and 2020. We queried the registry for all patients who were transferred from a non-ESC to one of the nine ESCs for EVT. Univariate analysis was performed using t-tests to obtain a p value. A priori, we defined a p value of <0.05 as significant. Multiple logistic regression was conducted to determine the association of variables to estimate an odds ratio. RESULTS: 511 patients were included in the final analysis. The mean DIDO times for all patients was 137.8 min. Vascular imaging and treatment at a non-certified stroke center were associated with longer DIDO times by 23 and 14 min, respectively. On multivariate analyses, the acquisition of vascular imaging was associated with 16 additional minutes spent at the non-ESC while presentation to a non-stroke certified hospital was associated with 20 additional minutes spent at the transferring hospital. The administration of intravenous thrombolysis (IVT) was associated with 15 min less spent at the non-ESC. DISCUSSION: Vascular imaging and non-stroke certified stroke centers were associated with longer DIDO times. Non-ESCs should integrate vascular imaging into their workflow as feasible to reduce DIDO times. Further work examining other details regarding the transfer process such as transfer via ground or air, could help further identify opportunities to improve DIDO times.

Timing and Outcomes After Coronary Angiography Following Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Without Signs of ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction.

BACKGROUND: There is broad consensus that resuscitated out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) should receive immediate coronary angiography (CAG); however, factors that guide patient selection and optimal timing of CAG for post-arrest patients without evidence of STEMI remain incompletely described. OBJECTIVE: We sought to describe the timing of post-arrest CAG in actual practice, patient characteristics associated with decision to perform immediate vs. delayed CAG, and patient outcomes after CAG. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study at seven U.S. academic hospitals. Resuscitated adult patients with OHCA were included if they presented between January 1, 2015 and December 31, 2019 and received CAG during hospitalization. Emergency medical services run sheets and hospital records were analyzed. Patients without evidence of STEMI were grouped and compared based on time from arrival to CAG performance into "early" (≤ 6 h) and "delayed" (> 6 h). RESULTS: Two hundred twenty-one patients were included. Median time to CAG was 18.6 h (interquartile range [IQR] 1.5-94.6 h). Early catheterization was performed on 94 patients (42.5%) and delayed catheterization was performed on 127 patients (57.5%). Patients in the early group were older (61 years [IQR 55-70 years] vs. 57 years [IQR 47-65] years) and more likely to be male (79.8% vs. 59.8%). Those in the early group were more likely to have clinically significant lesions (58.5% vs. 39.4%) and receive revascularization (41.5% vs. 19.7%). Patients were more likely to die in the early group (47.9% vs. 33.1%). Among survivors, there was no significant difference in neurologic recovery at discharge. CONCLUSIONS: OHCA patients without evidence of STEMI who received early CAG were older and more likely to be male. This group was more likely to have intervenable lesions and receive revascularization.

Evolution of endovascular stroke centers and disparities in access to stroke care in four Northeastern states: 2015-2019.

OBJECTIVES: Disparities exist throughout our healthcare system, especially related to access to care. Advanced stroke care for strokes is only available at selected endovascular centers (ESCs) in the United States. Although the number of ESCs increase each year, this does not necessarily reflect increased access to care. Here, we look at the evolution of ESC in four states and disparities in access to advanced stroke care. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This is a descriptive study of access to ESCs in four Northeastern states between 2015-2019. Using data from the United States Census Bureau and spatial analysis, we examined the proportion of the population with drive times of less than 60 minutes stratified by income, race/ethnicity, population density, and insurance. We also calculated the mean drive time for each of these socioeconomic groups from their census tracts to the nearest ESC. RESULTS: Between 2015 and 2019, the number of ESCs increased from 15 to 48. The proportion of patients within a 60-minute drive of an ESC increased from 77% to 88%. However, only 66% of the least densely populated quartile lived within 60 min of an ESC. By income, access to ESCs in the wealthiest quartile was 96.6% compared to 83.7% in the lowest quartile. Hispanics and non-Hispanic Blacks had the largest proportions of populations within 60 minutes of an ESC while Non-Hispanic Whites had the smallest. CONCLUSIONS: This study underscores the need to evaluate the placement of new ESCs to assure that these hospitals decrease disparities and increase access to advanced stroke care.

Optimizing Prehospital Stroke Systems of Care-Reacting to Changing Paradigms (OPUS-REACH): a pragmatic registry of large vessel occlusion stroke patients to create evidence-based stroke systems of care and eliminate disparities in access to stroke care.

BACKGROUND: Large vessel occlusion (LVO) strokes are best treated with rapid endovascular therapy (EVT). There are two routes that LVO stroke patients can take to EVT therapy when transported by EMS: primary transport (ambulance transports directly to an endovascular stroke center (ESC) or secondary transport (EMS transports to a non-ESC then transfers for EVT). There is no clear evidence which path to care results in better functional outcomes for LVO stroke patients. To find this answer, an analysis of a large, real-world population of LVO stroke patients must be performed. METHODS: A pragmatic registry of LVO stroke patients from nine health systems across the United States. The nine health systems span urban and rural populations as well as the spectrum of socioeconomic statuses. We will use univariate and multivariate analysis to explore the relationships between type of EMS transport, socioeconomic factors, and LVO stroke outcomes. We will use geographic information systems and spatial analysis to examine the complex movements of patients in time and space. To detect an 8% difference between groups, with a 3:1 patient ratio of primary to secondary transports, 95% confidence and 80% power, we will need approximately 1600 patients. The primary outcome is the patients with modified Rankin Scale (mRS) ≤ 2 at 90 days. Subgroup analyses include patients who receive intravenous thrombolysis and duration of stroke systems. Secondary analyses include socioeconomic factors associated with poor outcomes after LVO stroke. DISCUSSION: Using the data obtained from the OPUS-REACH registry, we will develop evidence based algorithms for prehospital transport of LVO stroke patients. Unlike prior research, the OPUS-REACH registry contains patient-level data spanning from EMS dispatch to ninety day functional outcomes. We expect that we will find modifiable factors and socioeconomic disparities associated with poor outcomes in LVO stroke. OPUS-REACH with its breadth of locations, detailed patient records, and multidisciplinary researchers will design the optimal prehospital stroke system of care for LVO stroke patients.

Ocular Ultrasound: Review of Bioeffects and Safety, Including Fetal and Point of Care Perspective: Review of Bioeffects and Safety, Including Fetal and Point-of-Care Perspective.

Ocular ultrasound is an invaluable tool for the evaluation of the eye and orbit. However, the eye and orbit are potentially sensitive to the thermal and mechanical effects of ultrasound. When performing B-mode imaging, dedicated ocular settings should be used. If these settings are not available, limiting the acoustic output to Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended maximum levels is strongly advised. Especially important is the acoustic output in spectral (pulsed) and color Doppler modes, which can exceed the FDA's maximum recommended levels for the eye. Adjusting settings to decrease acoustic output and limiting the time of the examination should be done when performing a Doppler examination. The acoustic output of shear wave elastography is significantly higher than FDA guidelines for the eye and should be considered experimental.

Association of Recent Use of Non-Vitamin K Antagonist Oral Anticoagulants With Intracranial Hemorrhage Among Patients With Acute Ischemic Stroke Treated With Alteplase.

Importance: Current guidelines recommend against use of intravenous alteplase in patients with acute ischemic stroke who are taking non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (NOACs). Objective: To evaluate the safety and functional outcomes of intravenous alteplase among patients who were taking NOACs prior to stroke and compare outcomes with patients who were not taking long-term anticoagulants. Design, Setting, and Participants: A retrospective cohort study of 163 038 patients with acute ischemic stroke either taking NOACs or not taking anticoagulants prior to stroke and treated with intravenous alteplase within 4.5 hours of symptom onset at 1752 US hospitals participating in the Get With The Guidelines-Stroke program between April 2015 and March 2020, with complementary data from the Addressing Real-world Anticoagulant Management Issues in Stroke registry. Exposures: Prestroke treatment with NOACs within 7 days prior to alteplase treatment. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage occurring within 36 hours after intravenous alteplase administration. There were 4 secondary safety outcomes, including inpatient mortality, and 7 secondary functional outcomes assessed at hospital discharge, including the proportion of patients discharged home. Results: Of 163 038 patients treated with intravenous alteplase (median age, 70 [IQR, 59 to 81] years; 49.1% women), 2207 (1.4%) were taking NOACs and 160 831 (98.6%) were not taking anticoagulants prior to their stroke. Patients taking NOACs were older (median age, 75 [IQR, 64 to 82] years vs 70 [IQR, 58 to 81] years for those not taking anticoagulants), had a higher prevalence of cardiovascular comorbidities, and experienced more severe strokes (median National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score, 10 [IQR, 5 to 17] vs 7 [IQR, 4 to 14]) (all standardized differences >10). The unadjusted rate of symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage was 3.7% (95% CI, 2.9% to 4.5%) for patients taking NOACs vs 3.2% (95% CI, 3.1% to 3.3%) for patients not taking anticoagulants. After adjusting for baseline clinical factors, the risk of symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage was not significantly different between groups (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 0.88 [95% CI, 0.70 to 1.10]; adjusted risk difference [RD], -0.51% [95% CI, -1.36% to 0.34%]). There were no significant differences in the secondary safety outcomes, including inpatient mortality (6.3% for patients taking NOACs vs 4.9% for patients not taking anticoagulants; adjusted OR, 0.84 [95% CI, 0.69 to 1.01]; adjusted RD, -1.20% [95% CI, -2.39% to -0%]). Of the secondary functional outcomes, 4 of 7 showed significant differences in favor of the NOAC group after adjustment, including the proportion of patients discharged home (45.9% vs 53.6% for patients not taking anticoagulants; adjusted OR, 1.17 [95% CI, 1.06 to 1.29]; adjusted RD, 3.84% [95% CI, 1.46% to 6.22%]). Conclusions and Relevance: Among patients with acute ischemic stroke treated with intravenous alteplase, use of NOACs within the preceding 7 days, compared with no use of anticoagulants, was not associated with a significantly increased risk of intracranial hemorrhage.

Diagnostic Ultrasound Safety Review for Point-of-Care Ultrasound Practitioners.

Potential ultrasound exposure safety issues are reviewed, with guidance for prudent use of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS). Safety assurance begins with the training of POCUS practitioners in the generation and interpretation of diagnostically valid and clinically relevant images. Sonographers themselves should minimize patient exposure in accordance with the as-low-as-reasonably-achievable principle, particularly for the safety of the eye, lung, and fetus. This practice entails the reduction of output indices or the exposure duration, consistent with the acquisition of diagnostically definitive images. Informed adoption of POCUS worldwide promises a reduction of ionizing radiation risks, enhanced cost-effectiveness, and prompt diagnoses for optimal patient care.

C1 Esterase Inhibitor for Ace-Inhibitor Angioedema: A Case Series and Literature Review.

BACKGROUND: Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are a commonly prescribed and effective medication to treat hypertension. Although generally well tolerated, about 1% of patients will experience angioedema, a potentially life-threatening adverse drug reaction. This reaction is thought to be mediated via a buildup of bradykinin and does not typically respond to epinephrine, corticosteroids, or antihistamines. Alternative treatment strategies have been investigated, the bulk of which surround the use of therapies approved for hereditary angioedema. OBJECTIVE: Utilization of C1 esterase inhibitors at our institution was reviewed between 2016 and 2018 for treatment of ACE inhibitor-induced angioedema. We describe the clinical course of case series, along with a review of current literature. DISCUSSION: Utilization of C1 esterase inhibitors for treating ACE inhibitor-induced angioedema is an uncommon therapy and has limited efficacy in our case series. Treatment did not result in rapid improvement of swelling, prevention of intubation, or prevention of intensive care unit admission. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our case series, C1 esterase therapy should not be utilized routinely for ACE inhibitor-induced angioedema and is not expected to prevent intubation in severe cases.

Bedside Ultrasonography in the Management of Penetrating Cardiac Injury Caused by a Nail Gun.

BACKGROUND: Injuries from nail guns are a unique type of penetrating trauma seen in emergency departments (EDs), rising in prevalence in the United States. These devices can lead to life-threatening injuries that require rapid diagnosis to help guide management. CASE REPORT: An elderly man was brought to the ED having sustained a nail gun injury to the chest. After loss of pulses, brief closed chest compressions and rapid blood product administration led to a return of spontaneous circulation. Using bedside ultrasound, a metallic foreign body was identified tracking through the right ventricle with associated pericardial fluid and pericardial clot. This rapid diagnosis with bedside ultrasound helped facilitate timely transport to the operating room for median sternotomy, foreign body removal, and pledgeted cardiac repair. WHY SHOULD AN EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN BE AWARE OF THIS?: With continued developments in image quality and acquisition, and improvements of physician operator performance, ultrasonography has continued to make significant impacts in traumatically injured patients in new ways. We present this case report to highlight precordial nail gun injuries and to emphasize the diagnostic capabilities of bedside ultrasound for these patients.

Even Faster Door-to-Alteplase Times and Associated Outcomes in Acute Ischemic Stroke.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The timely administration of thrombolytic therapy for acute ischemic stroke has been associated with good functional outcomes. Current guidelines recommend alteplase administration within 60 minutes in 75% of eligible patients and within 45 minutes in 50% of patients. There is limited evidence guiding these measures and their effect on outcomes. We report a single-center, retrospective assessment of the safety and efficacy of alteplase treatment within 45 minutes. METHODS: Five hundred and eighty-six patients were treated with alteplase in our emergency departments (EDs) between January 2014 and October 2016; 368 patients were included for analysis. Multivariate regression analysis was used to assess the association between door-to-alteplase (DTA) times and 90-day modified Rankin scale (mRS) scores. Incidence of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) was also documented. RESULTS: The median DTA time was 29 minutes versus 64 minutes in the DTA less than or equal to 45 minutes arm and more than 45 minutes arm, respectively. The primary outcome of 90-day mRS 0-1 was achieved in 56% of patients in the less than or equal to 45 minutes group versus 58% in more than 45 minutes group (P = .67). Odds of achieving mRS 0-1 were not significantly impacted by DTA times. In the multivariate regression analysis, patient characteristics associated with achieving mRS 0-1 were: younger age, male sex, not requiring intubation in the ED, and without prior history of hypertension, atrial fibrillation, or stroke. There was no significant difference in rates of ICH for patients less than or equal to 45 minutes versus more than 45 minutes. CONCLUSIONS: Rapid administration of alteplase was not associated with significantly better outcomes nor increased risk of ICH. Conclusions about efficacy are limited due to the retrospective nature of the study, small sample size, and incomplete data points.

Emergency and critical care applications for contrast-enhanced ultrasound.

INTRODUCTION: Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) using intravascular microbubbles has potential to revolutionize point-of-care ultrasonography by expanding the use of ultrasonography into clinical scenarios previously reserved for computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging, or angiography. METHODS: We performed a literature search and report clinical experience to provide an introduction to CEUS and describe its current applications for point-of-care indications. RESULTS: The uses of CEUS include several applications highly relevant for emergency medicine, such as solid-organ injuries, actively bleeding hematomas, or abdominal aortic aneurysms. Compared with CT as the preeminent advanced imaging modality in the emergency department, CEUS is low cost, radiation sparing, repeatable, and readily available. It does not require sedation, preprocedural laboratory assessment, or transportation to the radiology suite. CONCLUSIONS: CEUS is a promising imaging technique for point-of-care applications in pediatric and adult patients and can be applied for patients with allergy to CT contrast medium or with impaired renal function. More high-quality CEUS research focusing on accuracy, patient safety, health care costs, and throughput times is needed to validate its use in emergency and critical care settings.

The Advanced Reperfusion Era: Implications for Emergency Systems of Ischemic Stroke Care.

Large vessel ischemic stroke is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Recent advances in endovascular stroke treatment are changing the treatment paradigm for these patients. This concepts article summarizes the time-dependent nature of stroke care and evaluates the recent advancements in endovascular treatment. These advancements have significant implications for out-of-hospital, hospital, and regional systems of stroke care. Emergency medicine clinicians have a central role in implementing these systems that will ensure timely treatment of patients and selection of those who may benefit from endovascular care.

Importance of the Emergency Medicine Application Components: The Medical Student Perception.

BACKGROUND: The National Resident Matching Program (NRMP) application has several elements. With limited time and resources, students must prioritize the key application elements on which to focus. It is unclear if medical students applying to emergency medicine (EM) prioritize the same items as program directors. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine medical student perception of the importance of each factor of the NRMP application to an EM residency. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study approved by the Institutional Review Board at an academic tertiary care Level I trauma center. A pilot-tested and validated survey tool was given to all medical students rotating in EM during an 18-month period. The students ranked each application item on a 5-point scale (1 = not important and 5 = very important) with verbal anchors. RESULTS: Of 136 medical students, 85.3% responded. Excluded were 31% who were not planning to apply to EM, leaving 80 responses for analysis. Items ranked higher were EM rotation grade, interview, clinical rotation grades, and letters of recommendation. Less emphasis was placed on Alpha Omega Alpha (AOA) honor society status, publication in medical literature, and personal statement. Items most agreed upon and believed to be most important by the students were EM rotation grade, interviews, and clinical rotation grades. CONCLUSIONS: This is similar to previously reported rankings by program directors. Although medical students agreed on the importance of most aspects of the NRMP application, areas of discordance included emphasis on extracurricular activities and AOA. This can have implications for medical student mentoring and advising.

Delayed cardiac dysrhythmias after fingolimod administration.

A 51-year-old woman with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis was initiated on fingolimod. She developed a Mobitz Type I (Wenckebach)second-degree atrioventricular (AV) heart block during the initial 6-hour monitoring. She was transferred to the emergency department for further monitoring, where she went into a junctional tachycardia then went back into a Mobitz Type I AV block. The patient was symptomatic with a heart rate nadir of 38 beats per minute and treated with atropine. Junctional tachycardia has not been previously reported with fingolimod use. Patients may require extended cardiac monitoring after fingolimod administration.

Do emergency medicine residents and faculty have similar learning styles when assessed with the Kolb learning style assessment tool?

Experiential learning theory and the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (Kolb LSI) have influenced educators worldwide for decades. Knowledge of learning styles can create efficient learning environments, increase information retention, and improve learner satisfaction. Learning styles have been examined in medicine previously, but not specifically with Emergency Medicine (EM) residents and attendings. Using the Kolb LSI, the learning styles of Emergency Medicine residents and attendings were assessed. The findings showed that the majority of EM residents and attendings shared the accommodating learning style. This result was different than prior studies that found the majority of medical professionals had a converging learning style and other studies that found attendings often have different learning styles than residents. The issue of learning styles among emergency medical residents and attendings is important because learning style knowledge may have an impact on how a residency program structures curriculum and how EM residents are successfully, efficiently, and creatively educated.

An atypical misplacement of a temporary pacing catheter diagnosed and resolved by ultrasound.

Temporary transvenous pacing catheter placement is an important and critical procedure for emergency physicians. Ultrasound can be used to guide placement and to diagnosis correct or incorrect catheter placement. This case report discusses a patient with an acute ST elevation myocardial infarction leading to unstable arrhythmias requiring emergent transvenous cardiac pacing. The pacemaker was inserted using electrocardiographic monitoring through the bipolar pacing catheter. There was some difficulty placing the catheter, but successful capture with a left bundle-branch block pattern was obtained. However, ultrasonographic evaluation after placement showed the pacing wire curled in the Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) with the tip in the right ventricle. Ultrasound examination and guidance can prevent misplacement of the transvenous pacer catheter, which would not be apparent by electrocardiographic means.

Ultrasound-guidance can reduce adverse events during femoral central venous cannulation.

BACKGROUND: Ultrasound-guidance for internal jugular central venous cannulation (CVC) has become the recommended best practice and has been shown to improve placement success and reduce complications. There is a dearth of studies that evaluate emergency point-of-care ultrasound guidance of femoral CVC. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine if point-of-care ultrasound guidance for femoral CVC decreases adverse events and increases the likelihood of successful placement when compared with the landmark technique. METHODS: We conducted an Institutional Review Board-approved, prospective, observational study of consecutive patients who required CVC. Physicians who performed CVC completed a standardized, web-based data sheet for a national CVC registry. We evaluated single-institution data regarding CVC site, ultrasound usage, CVC indication, and mechanical complications (e.g., pneumothorax, arterial puncture, failed access, catheter misdirection, and hematoma). The study period was between January 2006 and June 2010. Analysis using Pearson's χ(2) and Agresti-Coull binomial confidence intervals was performed; significance was defined as p < 0.05. RESULTS: We evaluated data for 143 patients who had femoral CVC in our institution. Sixty CVCs (42%) were performed under ultrasound guidance, 83 (58%) via landmark technique (p = 0.0159); 3.3% of femoral central venous lines placed by ultrasound guidance had recorded adverse events compared with 9.6% for the landmark technique (p = 0.145). There was no statistically significant difference in complications between ultrasound-guidance and landmark techniques. Our data showed a trend toward decreased rates of arterial puncture and reduced cannulation attempts resulting in improved placement success. CONCLUSIONS: Our experience shows that ultrasound guidance for femoral CVC might decrease complications and improve placement success, although we cannot recommend this approach without additional data. We recommend a larger study to further evaluate this technique.

Best Practices for Point of Care Ultrasound: An Interdisciplinary Expert Consensus.

Despite the growing use of point of care ultrasound (POCUS) in contemporary medical practice and the existence of clinical guidelines addressing its specific applications, there remains a lack of standardization and agreement on optimal practices for several areas of POCUS use. The Society of Point of Care Ultrasound (SPOCUS) formed a working group in 2022 to establish a set of recommended best practices for POCUS, applicable to clinicians regardless of their training, specialty, resource setting, or scope of practice. Using a three-round modified Delphi process, a multi-disciplinary panel of 22 POCUS experts based in the United States reached consensus on 57 statements in domains including: (1) The definition and clinical role of POCUS; (2) Training pathways; (3) Credentialing; (4) Cleaning and maintenance of POCUS devices; (5) Consent and education; (6) Security, storage, and sharing of POCUS studies; (7) Uploading, archiving, and reviewing POCUS studies; and (8) Documenting POCUS studies. The consensus statements are provided here. While not intended to establish a standard of care or supersede more targeted guidelines, this document may serve as a useful baseline to guide clinicians, leaders, and systems considering initiation or enhancement of POCUS programs.

The Safety, Efficacy, and Expediency of Albuterol Nebulizer Administration by BLS Providers.

INTRODUCTION: Many Emergency Medical Service (EMS) systems in the United States restrict albuterol therapy by scope of practice to Advanced Life Support (ALS). The State of Delaware has a two-tiered EMS system in which Basic Life Support (BLS) arrives on scene prior to ALS in the majority of respiratory distress calls. STUDY OBJECTIVE: This study sought to evaluate the safety, efficacy, and expedience of albuterol administration by BLS compared to ALS. METHODS: This retrospective observational study used data collected from July 2015 through January 2017 throughout a State BLS albuterol pilot program. Pilot BLS agencies participated in a training session on the indications and administration of albuterol, and were then authorized to carry and administer nebulized albuterol. Heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), and pulse oximetry (spO2) were obtained before and after albuterol administration by BLS and ALS. The times from BLS arrival to the administration of albuterol by pilot BLS agencies versus ALS were compared. Study encounters required both BLS and ALS response. Data were analyzed using chi-square and t-test as appropriate. RESULTS: Three hundred eighty-eight (388) incidents were reviewed. One hundred eighty-five (185) patients received albuterol by BLS pilot agencies and 203 patients received albuterol by ALS. Of note, the population treated by ALS was significantly older than the population treated by BLS (61.9 versus 51.6 years; P <.001). A comparison of BLS arrival time to albuterol administration time showed significantly shorter times in the BLS pilot group compared to the ALS group (3.50 minutes versus 8.00 minutes, respectively; P <.001). After albuterol administration, BLS pilot patients showed improvements in HR (P <.01), RR (P <.01), and spO2 (P <.01). Alternately, ALS treatment patients showed improvement in spO2 (P <.01) but not RR (P = .17) or HR (P = 1.00). Review by ALS or hospital staff showed albuterol was indicated in 179 of 185 BLS patients and administered correctly in 100% of these patients. CONCLUSION: Patients both received albuterol significantly sooner and showed superior improvements in vital signs when treated by BLS agencies carrying albuterol rather than by BLS agencies who required ALS arrival for albuterol. Two-tiered EMS systems should consider allowing BLS to carry and administer albuterol for safe, effective, and expedient treatment of respiratory distress patients amenable to albuterol therapy.