Non-medical formula use in newborn infants still common at two Swedish hospitals after a breastfeeding support program.

AIM: To evaluate the effectiveness of a breastfeeding support programme on reducing infant formula use and to investigate indications for formula in newborn infants in Sweden. METHODS: A quasi-experimental study design was carried out. It included 255 mother-infant pairs in a control group, who received standard care and 254 pairs in an intervention group, who took part in a breastfeeding support programme. Data were collected by reviewing patient records from two regional hospitals in Uppsala and Gotland and recruitment took place between 2017 and 2019. RESULTS: Median age of mothers were 31 years (range 20-49) and median gestational age of infants were 39 + 6 weeks/days (range 37 + 0 to 42 + 4). The intervention did not reduce infant formula use. In total, 87/507 (17%) of the infants received formula. Among children receiving formula 30/87 (34%) had a medical indication, whereas 57/87 (66%) had no medical indication. Main reasons for medically indicated formula use were hypoglycaemia, 13/30 (43%), and weight loss, 13/30 (43%). Main reasons for non-medical use were mothers'/parents' wishes, 25/57 (44%) and infants' dissatisfaction, 11/57 (19%). CONCLUSION: Continued efforts are needed to develop effective breastfeeding interventions with increased focus on infant formula reduction.

Urinary nitric oxide excretion in infants with eczema.

Eczema is characterized by inflammation of the skin and is commonly associated with food allergy. It has been suggested that nitric oxide (NO) is an important player in eczema, food allergy and intestinal inflammation. The aim of this study was to assess the levels of urinary NO breakdown products in infants with eczema and the effect of eczema treatment on NO levels. Ninety-four infants with eczema, 58 boys and 36 girls, with a mean age of 7.5 ± 5.2 months (mean ± s.d.) at inclusion were examined twice with an interval of 6 wk. The sum of nitrite and nitrate was measured colorimetrically in urinary samples from both visits and compared with clinical data concerning eczema severity, nutrition, gastrointestinal symptoms, asthma and skin prick positivity. The levels of NO products increased significantly from the first to the second visit: 289; 374 µm (median; IQR) vs. 457; 678 µm (median; IQR) (p < 0.001) in parallel with a significant improvement of the eczema. After eczema treatment consisting of skin care and elimination diet during the 6-wk interval between evaluations, the NO levels approached the values previously found in healthy children. The results support previous studies indicating that the homeostasis of nitrogen radicals is disturbed in childhood eczema.

Adverse reactions to skin prick testing in children - prevalence and possible risk factors.

Skin prick test (SPT) is usually considered to be a safe procedure, but recently there have been occasional case reports of generalized allergic reactions. This study was performed to delineate the prevalence of, and evaluate possible risk factors for, adverse reactions to SPT in a prospective study. Altogether 5,908 patients aged < or =18 yr from 11 different pediatric settings were included. The adverse reactions were classified into two groups: (1) Generalized allergic reactions (GAR), (2) Vasovagal reactions (VVR). Adverse reactions were observed in 14 out of 5,908 children examined with SPT. Seven of the adverse reactions were GARs and required medication, yielding a 0.12% risk for GAR. Seven of 14 were VVRs, giving the same risk, 0.12%. Identified risk factors for GAR were low age (<1 yr) (RR 6.28) and active eczema (RR 16.98). For VVR, the risk factors were female sex (RR 7.32) and multiple skin pricks performed on a single patient (p < 0.05). We conclude that GARs do occur, albeit rarely, so the need for proper emergency handling should always be acknowledged. The risk factors suggested may help to identify patients who need extra attention.

High levels of IgG4 antibodies to foods during infancy are associated with tolerance to corresponding foods later in life.

Children with eczema and sensitization to foods are recommended skin care and, if food allergy is proven by challenge, an elimination diet. For most children the diet period is transient, but the process behind tolerance development and the influence of decreased allergen exposure is not fully known. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of elimination diet on serum and salivary antibodies and to identify immunological parameters related to the ability to tolerate foods. Eighty-nine children, below 2 yr of age, with eczema and suspected food allergy were included. Recommended treatment was skin care to all children, and 60 children had a period of elimination diet. At 4(1/2) yr of age, the children were divided into two groups, based on if they had been able to introduce the eliminated foods, or not. Serum and salivary antibodies were analyzed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and UniCAP before and after a 6-wk treatment period and at 4(1/2) yr of age. Children sensitized to egg and/or milk that could eat and drink the offending foods at 4(1/2) yr of age, had higher levels of Immunoglobulin G(4) antibodies to ovalbumin and beta-lactoglobulin and also higher IgG(4)/Immunoglobulin E ratios on inclusion in the study, than those who had to eliminate egg and/or milk from their diet, beyond 4(1/2) yr of age. The highest IgG(4)/IgE ratios were found in children with circulating IgE antibodies to egg and/or milk but negative skin prick test on inclusion. The 6-wk treatment period did not significantly affect the levels of serum and salivary antibodies. In conclusion, eczematous, food sensitized infants with high levels of IgG(4) and high ratios of IgG(4)/IgE antibodies to food allergens are more likely to consume these foods at 4(1/2) yr than infants with low levels and ratios.

Severe eczema in infancy can predict asthma development. A prospective study to the age of 10 years.

BACKGROUND: Children with atopic eczema in infancy often develop allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and asthma, but the term "atopic march" has been questioned as the relations between atopic disorders seem more complicated than one condition progressing into another. OBJECTIVE: In this prospective multicenter study we followed children with eczema from infancy to the age of 10 years focusing on sensitization to allergens, severity of eczema and development of allergic airway symptoms at 4.5 and 10 years of age. METHODS: On inclusion, 123 children were examined. Hanifin-Rajka criteria and SCORAD index were used to describe the eczema. Episodes of wheezing were registered, skin prick tests and IgE tests were conducted and questionnaires were filled out. Procedures were repeated at 4.5 and 10 years of age with additional examinations for ARC and asthma. RESULTS: 94 out of 123 completed the entire study. High SCORAD points on inclusion were correlated with the risk of developing ARC, (B = 9.86, P = 0.01) and asthma, (B = 10.17, P = 0.01). For infants with eczema and wheezing at the first visit, the OR for developing asthma was 4.05(P = 0.01). ARC at 4.5 years of age resulted in an OR of 11.28(P = 0.00) for asthma development at 10 years. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that infant eczema with high SCORAD points is associated with an increased risk of asthma at 10 years of age. Children with eczema and wheezing episodes during infancy are more likely to develop asthma than are infants with eczema alone. Eczema in infancy combined with early onset of ARC seems to indicate a more severe allergic disease, which often leads to asthma development. The progression from eczema in infancy to ARC at an early age and asthma later in childhood shown in this study supports the relevance of the term "atopic march", at least in more severe allergic disease.

A new model for low-dose food challenge in children with allergy to milk or egg.

BACKGROUND: Atopic eczema and food allergy are common in early childhood. Children seem to gradually develop tolerance to milk and egg, and it is a relief for families when their child can tolerate small amounts of these basic foods, even if larger doses may still cause symptoms. AIM: To develop a model for low-dose oral food challenge, facilitating re-/introduction of milk or egg. METHODS: In 39 children sensitized to milk and/or egg, we performed 52 challenges using a new standardized model for low-dose oral food challenge. The recipes were validated for blinding with sensorial tests. RESULTS: Four children challenged to milk had a positive challenge outcome. There were no significant differences with respect to family history, associated atopic manifestations, nutritional supply, eczema severity, or skin-prick test compared with the non-reacting children, but total and specific IgE values were significantly higher. All but two of the non-reacting children were able to introduce milk and egg into their diet without problems. CONCLUSION: We report recipes and a protocol to be used for standardized open and double-blind placebo-controlled low-dose food challenge in young children, enabling the introduction of small amounts of egg and milk into the diet during tolerance development.

Significant improvement of eczema with skin care and food elimination in small children.

AIM: To evaluate common methods of investigation and treatment in children younger than 2 y of age with eczema, with or without sensitization to food allergens. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-three children younger than 2 y of age with eczema and suspected food allergy were included in this prospective study. The children underwent skin-prick test with cow's milk, fresh hen's egg white and wheat. Specific IgE to milk and egg white was analysed. The eczema extent and severity was estimated with SCORAD before and after treatment. Children with a positive skin-prick test were instructed to exclude that food item from their diet. All children were treated with emollients and topical steroids when needed. RESULTS: Sixty-two of the children were skin-prick positive to at least one of the allergens; 62% had mild, 30% moderate and 8% severe eczema at their first visit. After treatment, 90% had mild, 10% moderate and 0% severe eczema. Forty-six per cent of the children had circulating IgE antibodies to milk or egg white. Ten per cent had specific IgE but negative skin-prick test to the same allergen. This subgroup improved their eczema significantly without elimination diet. CONCLUSION: The conventional treatments for children with eczema, i.e. skin care and food elimination, are effective. The beneficial effect of skin care as the first step should not be neglected, and it may not be necessary to eliminate food allergens to relieve skin symptoms in all food-sensitized children with eczema.