Hyperactive MEK1 Signaling in Cortical GABAergic Neurons Promotes Embryonic Parvalbumin Neuron Loss and Defects in Behavioral Inhibition.

Many developmental syndromes have been linked to genetic mutations that cause abnormal ERK/MAPK activity; however, the neuropathological effects of hyperactive signaling are not fully understood. Here, we examined whether hyperactivation of MEK1 modifies the development of GABAergic cortical interneurons (CINs), a heterogeneous population of inhibitory neurons necessary for cortical function. We show that GABAergic-neuron specific MEK1 hyperactivation in vivo leads to increased cleaved caspase-3 labeling in a subpopulation of immature neurons in the embryonic subpallial mantle zone. Adult mutants displayed a significant loss of parvalbumin (PV), but not somatostatin, expressing CINs and a reduction in perisomatic inhibitory synapses on excitatory neurons. Surviving mutant PV-CINs maintained a typical fast-spiking phenotype but showed signs of decreased intrinsic excitability that coincided with an increased risk of seizure-like phenotypes. In contrast to other mouse models of PV-CIN loss, we discovered a robust increase in the accumulation of perineuronal nets, an extracellular structure thought to restrict plasticity. Indeed, we found that mutants exhibited a significant impairment in the acquisition of behavioral response inhibition capacity. Overall, our data suggest PV-CIN development is particularly sensitive to hyperactive MEK1 signaling, which may underlie certain neurological deficits frequently observed in ERK/MAPK-linked syndromes.

Abuse liability of novel 'legal high' designer stimulants: evidence from animal models.

In the last few years, the variety and recreational use of 'legal high' designer stimulants has increased to unprecedented levels. Since their rapid emergence in drug markets, numerous adverse physical and psychological effects have been extensively reported. However, less is understood about the potential for compulsive use of and addiction to these drugs. Recently, a small collection of scientific studies assessing the abuse liability of these drugs has emerged. This new knowledge has been derived primarily from animal studies using behaviorally based procedures which include intravenous self-administration, conditioned place preference, intracranial self-stimulation, and drug discrimination. In this review we present a brief history of the recent rise in designer stimulant use followed by a short methodological description of the aforementioned procedures. We then review neurochemical and abuse liability studies on designer stimulants that have been examined to date. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of these collective findings, our current understanding of the abuse liability of these drugs in relation to each other and the illicit drugs they are designed to mimic, and recommend future research directions.

Protein kinase C isozymes as regulators of sensitivity to and self-administration of drugs of abuse-studies with genetically modified mice.

Studies using targeted gene deletion in mice have revealed distinct roles for individual isozymes of the protein kinase C (PKC) family of enzymes in regulating sensitivity to various drugs of abuse. These changes in drug sensitivity are associated with altered patterns of drug self-administration. The purpose of this review is to summarize behavioral studies conducted on mice carrying targeted deletions of genes encoding specific PKC isozymes (namely the beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon isozymes), and to critically evaluate the possibility of using pharmacological inhibitors of specific PKC isozymes as modulators of the sensitivity to various drugs of abuse, as well as potential aids in the treatment of substance use disorders.

Chronic treatment with N-acetylcysteine decreases extinction responding and reduces cue-induced nicotine-seeking.

N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a promising glutamatergic therapeutic agent, has shown some clinical efficacy in reducing nicotine use in humans and has been shown to reverse drug-induced changes in glutamatergic neurophysiology. In rats, nicotine-seeking behavior is associated with alterations in glutamatergic plasticity within the nucleus accumbens core (NAcore). Specifically, cue-induced nicotine-seeking is associated with rapid, transient synaptic plasticity (t-SP) in glutamatergic synapses on NAcore medium spiny neurons. The goal of the present study was to determine if NAC reduces nicotine-seeking behavior and reverses reinstatement-associated NAcore glutamatergic alterations. Rats were extinguished from nicotine self-administration, followed by subchronic NAC administration (0 or 100 mg/kg/d) for 4 days prior to cue-induced reinstatement. NAcore synaptic potentiation was measured via dendritic spine morphology and mRNA and protein of relevant glutamatergic genes were quantified. Nicotine-seeking behavior was not reduced by subchronic NAC treatment. Also, NAcore transcript and protein expression of multiple glutamatergic genes, as well as spine morphological measures, were unaffected by subchronic NAC. Finally, chronic NAC treatment (15 days total) during extinction and prior to reinstatement significantly decreased extinction responding and reduced reinstatement of nicotine-seeking compared to vehicle. Together, these results suggest that chronic NAC treatment is necessary for its therapeutic efficacy as a treatment strategy for nicotine addiction and relapse.

Neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor antagonists as possible therapeutics for psychostimulant use disorders.

Abuse of and addiction to psychostimulants such as cocaine or amphetamines remain a significant societal burden, and attempts at successfully developing effective treatments for substance use disorders involving psychostimulants have been disappointingly unsuccessful to date. In addition, most pharmacologically based approaches to treating psychostimulant use disorders have largely focused on targeting monoaminergic or amino acid neurotransmission, with little emphasis being placed on neuropeptide systems. One such neuropeptide system that has received little attention is the tachykinin family of peptides and their corresponding neurokinin (NK) receptor subtypes designated NK1, NK2, and NK3. Tachykinins and their receptors are widely expressed in numerous cell types in the periphery and central nervous system, and in the latter, regulate fundamental processes such as nociception, reward, motivation, affect, and stress responses. In recent years, various small molecule brain penetrant NK1 antagonists have been developed which appear to be beneficial and well tolerated in patients undergoing treatment for chemotherapy-induced and post-operative nausea and vomiting. The purpose of this review is to summarize the small body of preclinical and clinical studies that suggest NK1 antagonists may be of potential use in the treatment of substance use disorders involving psychostimulants. Additional topics of discussion will be the importance of full receptor occupancy and known species differences in NK1 receptor ligand binding, which represent significant obstacles to utilizing standard rodent models of psychostimulant addiction for future screening of potentially efficacious NK1 antagonists.

mGluR5 Positive and Negative Allosteric Modulators Differentially Affect Dendritic Spine Density and Morphology in the Prefrontal Cortex.

Positive and negative allosteric modulators (PAMs and NAMs, respectively) of type 5 metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR5) are currently being investigated as novel treatments for neuropsychiatric diseases including drug addiction, schizophrenia, and Fragile X syndrome. However, only a handful of studies have examined the effects of mGluR5 PAMs or NAMs on the structural plasticity of dendritic spines in otherwise naïve animals, particularly in brain regions mediating executive function. In the present study, we assessed dendritic spine density and morphology in pyramidal cells of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) after repeated administration of either the prototypical mGluR5 PAM 3-cyano-N-(1,3-diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-5- yl)benzamide (CDPPB, 20 mg/kg), the clinically utilized mGluR5 NAM 1-(3-chlorophenyl)-3-(3-methyl-5-oxo-4Himidazol- 2-yl)urea (fenobam, 20 mg/kg), or vehicle in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Following once daily treatment for 10 consecutive days, coronal brain sections containing the mPFC underwent diolistic labeling and 3D image analysis of dendritic spines. Compared to vehicle treated animals, rats administered fenobam exhibited significant increases in dendritic spine density and the overall frequency of spines with small (<0.2 µm) head diameters, decreases in frequency of spines with medium (0.2-0.4 µm) head diameters, and had no changes in frequency of spines with large head diameters (>0.4 µm). Administration of CDPPB had no discernable effects on dendritic spine density or morphology, and neither CDPPB nor fenobam had any effect on spine length or volume. We conclude that mGluR5 PAMs and NAMs differentially affect mPFC dendritic spine structural plasticity in otherwise naïve animals, and additional studies assessing their effects in combination with cognitive or behavioral tasks are needed.

Real-time in vivo imaging of invasive- and biomaterial-associated bacterial infections using fluorescently labelled vancomycin.

Invasive and biomaterial-associated infections in humans are often difficult to diagnose and treat. Here, guided by recent advances in clinically relevant optical imaging technologies, we explore the use of fluorescently labelled vancomycin (vanco-800CW) to specifically target and detect infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria. The application potential of vanco-800CW for real-time in vivo imaging of bacterial infections is assessed in a mouse myositis model and a human post-mortem implant model. We show that vanco-800CW can specifically detect Gram-positive bacterial infections in our mouse myositis model, discriminate bacterial infections from sterile inflammation in vivo and detect biomaterial-associated infections in the lower leg of a human cadaver. We conclude that vanco-800CW has a high potential for enhanced non-invasive diagnosis of infections with Gram-positive bacteria and is a promising candidate for early-phase clinical trials.

Attenuation of cocaine-induced reinstatement of cocaine conditioned place preference by acamprosate.

Acamprosate (calcium acetylhomotaurinate) is a glutamatergic neuromodulator efficacious at reducing relapse in alcoholic patients. The effect of acamprosate on relapse to other drugs of abuse has received little attention, however, and given increasing evidence that glutamatergic transmission mediates relapse to cocaine-seeking behavior, the purpose of this study was to assess the effects of acamprosate on the reinstatement of a conditioned place preference for cocaine. Mice were conditioned daily with cocaine (15 mg/kg), tested for the establishment of cocaine conditioned place preference, and then retested once weekly to monitor the extinction of the place preference. Following extinction of cocaine conditioned place preference, animals were treated daily with saline or acamprosate (30 or 100 mg/kg) for 3 days, followed by a single injection of cocaine (15 mg/kg) to reinstate conditioned place preference. In mice treated with saline or the low (30 mg/kg) dose of acamprosate, cocaine induced a significant reinstatement of the previously extinguished conditioned place preference; however, this reinstatement was not observed in mice treated with the high (100 mg/kg) dose of acamprosate. These results indicate that acamprosate can attenuate relapse-like behavior in mice and suggest that this compound may be potentially useful in the treatment for cocaine addiction.