Mathematical optimisation of extruded mixed plant protein-based meat analogues based on amino acid compositions.

Developing meat analogues of superior amino acid (AA) profiles in the food industry is a challenge as plant proteins contain less of some essential AA than animal proteins. Mathematical optimisation models such as linear/non-linear programming models were used to overcome this challenge and create high-moisture meat analogues (HMMA) with AA profiles as close as possible to chicken breast meat. The effect on the physiochemical properties and specific mechanical energy (SME) of the HMMA was investigated. The AA content of HMMA was generally lower than chicken. Strong intermolecular bonds present in the globulin fraction could hinder protein acid hydrolysis of HMMA. Plant proteins also affect the HMMA colour as certain AA forms Maillard reaction products with higher browning intensity. Lastly, different characteristics of plant proteins resulted in different SME values under the same extrusion conditions. While mathematical programming can optimise plant protein combinations, fortification is required to match the AA profile of HMMA to an animal source.

Comparison of the molecular properties and volatile compounds of Maillard reaction products derived from animal- and cereal-based protein hydrolysates.

The changes in the molecular properties and volatile compounds of Maillard reaction products obtained from chicken bone extract (CBE), wheat protein (WP), and rice protein (RP) hydrolysates were compared in this study. Pressure cooking was used to prepare CBE, which was then filtered, defatted, and concentrated. The optimum enzyme-substrate (E/S) ratio of CBE, WP, and RP on Flavourzyme® using the Michaelis-Menten model was 4.0, 5.7, 4.8% w/w, respectively. The occurrence of the Maillard reaction was demonstrated by the lowering of pH, low molecular weight peptides (<1K Da), and total free amino acids after the samples were heat-treated. Volatile compounds were analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in conjunction with headspace solid-phase microextraction (SPME) sampling. Pyrazines, furan, and thioethers were detected in the MRPs of CBE, WP and RP. It was concluded that the MRPs of CBE, WP, and RP could be used as potential natural flavours in food applications.