Genetics of Interactive Behavior in Silver Foxes (Vulpes vulpes).

Individuals involved in a social interaction exhibit different behavioral traits that, in combination, form the individual's behavioral responses. Selectively bred strains of silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) demonstrate markedly different behaviors in their response to humans. To identify the genetic basis of these behavioral differences we constructed a large F2 population including 537 individuals by cross-breeding tame and aggressive fox strains. 98 fox behavioral traits were recorded during social interaction with a human experimenter in a standard four-step test. Patterns of fox behaviors during the test were evaluated using principal component (PC) analysis. Genetic mapping identified eight unique significant and suggestive QTL. Mapping results for the PC phenotypes from different test steps showed little overlap suggesting that different QTL are involved in regulation of behaviors exhibited in different behavioral contexts. Many individual behavioral traits mapped to the same genomic regions as PC phenotypes. This provides additional information about specific behaviors regulated by these loci. Further, three pairs of epistatic loci were also identified for PC phenotypes suggesting more complex genetic architecture of the behavioral differences between the two strains than what has previously been observed.

Sequence comparison of prefrontal cortical brain transcriptome from a tame and an aggressive silver fox (Vulpes vulpes).

BACKGROUND: Two strains of the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes), with markedly different behavioral phenotypes, have been developed by long-term selection for behavior. Foxes from the tame strain exhibit friendly behavior towards humans, paralleling the sociability of canine puppies, whereas foxes from the aggressive strain are defensive and exhibit aggression to humans. To understand the genetic differences underlying these behavioral phenotypes fox-specific genomic resources are needed. RESULTS: cDNA from mRNA from pre-frontal cortex of a tame and an aggressive fox was sequenced using the Roche 454 FLX Titanium platform (> 2.5 million reads & 0.9 Gbase of tame fox sequence; >3.3 million reads & 1.2 Gbase of aggressive fox sequence). Over 80% of the fox reads were assembled into contigs. Mapping fox reads against the fox transcriptome assembly and the dog genome identified over 30,000 high confidence fox-specific SNPs. Fox transcripts for approximately 14,000 genes were identified using SwissProt and the dog RefSeq databases. An at least 2-fold expression difference between the two samples (p < 0.05) was observed for 335 genes, fewer than 3% of the total number of genes identified in the fox transcriptome. CONCLUSIONS: Transcriptome sequencing significantly expanded genomic resources available for the fox, a species without a sequenced genome. In a very cost efficient manner this yielded a large number of fox-specific SNP markers for genetic studies and provided significant insights into the gene expression profile of the fox pre-frontal cortex; expression differences between the two fox samples; and a catalogue of potentially important gene-specific sequence variants. This result demonstrates the utility of this approach for developing genomic resources in species with limited genomic information.

Effect of domestication on aggression in gray Norway rats.

A comparative analysis of intermale aggression in the resident-intruder test was conducted with gray rats from a wild unselected population bred at the laboratory for three generations and gray rats selected for elimination (tame) and enhancement (aggressive) of aggressiveness towards human for 71-72 generations. Males from the laboratory line Wistar were used as neutral opponents. Rats from the tame line were characterized by reduced aggression manifest as longer attack latency, decreased number of attacks, upright postures, chases, kicks, and shorter total time of aggressive behavior compared to unselected males. There was no significant difference in the attack latency and the total time of aggression between rats of the aggressive line and unselected rats. A trend to decrease in the number of attacks, chases and upright postures and to increase in contribution of lateral threat postures to the total time of aggression was observed for males of the aggressive line. Plasma corticosterone in unselected males not presented with intruders and after their presentation was higher than in males of both selected lines. Comparative behavioral analysis of agonistic behaviors in rats from the aggressive and tame lines to opponents of different lines (Wistar, tame, aggressive) showed that the presence of an intruder from the aggressive line can enhance aggressive responses in residents from the tame line. Thus, selection for domestication of gray rats caused a significant attenuation of aggressive behavior without affecting the basic agonistic repertoire.

Mapping Loci for fox domestication: deconstruction/reconstruction of a behavioral phenotype.

During the second part of the twentieth century, Belyaev selected tame and aggressive foxes (Vulpes vulpes), in an effort known as the "farm-fox experiment", to recapitulate the process of animal domestication. Using these tame and aggressive foxes as founders of segregant backcross and intercross populations we have employed interval mapping to identify a locus for tame behavior on fox chromosome VVU12. This locus is orthologous to, and therefore validates, a genomic region recently implicated in canine domestication. The tame versus aggressive behavioral phenotype was characterized as the first principal component (PC) of a PC matrix made up of many distinct behavioral traits (e.g. wags tail; comes to the front of the cage; allows head to be touched; holds observer's hand with its mouth; etc.). Mean values of this PC for F1, backcross and intercross populations defined a linear gradient of heritable behavior ranging from tame to aggressive. The second PC did not follow such a gradient, but also mapped to VVU12, and distinguished between active and passive behaviors. These data suggest that (1) there are at least two VVU12 loci associated with behavior; (2) expression of these loci is dependent on interactions with other parts of the genome (the genome context) and therefore varies from one crossbred population to another depending on the individual parents that participated in the cross.

Cross-fostering effects on weight, exploratory activity, acoustic startle reflex and corticosterone stress response in Norway gray rats selected for elimination and for enhancement of aggressiveness towards human.

Two rat lines, one tame, the other aggressive, differing by many behavioral features and stress reactivity were developed by long-term selection of wild gray rats for elimination and enhancement of aggressiveness towards humans. The aim of this work was to study the role of the maternal environment in the expression of these differences between the two rat lines using the cross-fostering paradigm. Fostering of tame rats of both sexes by aggressive mothers and aggressive females by tame mothers was without effect on behavior score towards humans, but the cross-fostered aggressive males had a small, yet significant, increase in aggressiveness score. Cross-fostering revealed that exploratory behavior in the hole-board test and the acoustic startle amplitude were weakly affected by maternal interactions, although there was an effect on body weight and on the stress corticosterone response. Body weight was decreased in tame males fostered by aggressive mothers only and it was increased in cross-fostered aggressive rats of both sexes. Fostering of tame males and females by an aggressive mother enhanced almost twofold the corticosterone response immediately after stress, while fostering of aggressive ratlings of both sexes by a tame mother was without effect. The current results demonstrated that the maternal postnatal environment had no substantial effect on the behavioral responses of both tame and aggressive rats, but it possibly contributed to the development of the corticosterone response to restraint stress in the tame, and not the aggressive rats, i.e. these effects of cross-fostering were dependent on ratling genotype.

On the origin of a domesticated species: Identifying the parent population of Russian silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes).

The foxes at Novosibirsk, Russia, are the only population of domesticated foxes in the world. These domesticated foxes originated from farm-bred silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes), whose genetic source is unknown. In this study we examined the origin of the domesticated strain of foxes and two other farm-bred fox populations (aggressive and unselected) maintained in Novosibirsk. To identify the phylogenetic origin of these populations we sequenced two regions of mtDNA, cytochrome b and D-loop, from 24 Novosibirsk foxes (8 foxes from each population) and compared them with corresponding sequences of native red foxes from Europe, Asia, Alaska and Western Canada, Eastern Canada, and the Western Mountains of the USA. We identified seven cytochrome b - D-loop haplotypes in Novosibirsk populations, four of which were previously observed in Eastern North America. The three remaining haplotypes differed by one or two base change from the most common haplotype in Eastern Canada. Φ(ST) analysis showed significant differentiation between Novosibirsk populations and red fox populations from all geographic regions except Eastern Canada. No haplotypes of Eurasian origin were identified in the Novosibirsk populations. These results are consistent with historical records indicating that the original breeding stock of farm-bred foxes originated from Prince Edward Island, Canada. Mitochondrial DNA data together with historical records indicate two stages in the selection of domesticated foxes: the first includes captive breeding for ~50 years with unconscious selection for behaviour; the second corresponds to over 50 further years of intensive selection for tame behaviour.

Conserved methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene exon 1(7) promoter in rats subjected to a maternal methyl-supplemented diet.

It is well known that the early life experiences affect stress responses and other physiological and behavioral traits in adulthood. Both rat and human studies have shown that early postnatal effects are associated with methylation of the hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor gene exon 1(7) (rat) and 1-F (human) promoters. Methylation of these sites is also seen following methionine administration in adult rats. However, it remains unclear whether similar alterations in DNA methylation profiles can result from prenatal influences. To address this question, we fed pregnant rats a methyl-supplemented diet that resulted in alteration of the stress response. However, methylation analysis revealed no effect of methyl supplements on methylation patterns of the glucocorticoid receptor gene exon 1(7) promoter in offspring. These results suggest that the pre- and postnatal effects of methyl supplementation have different mechanisms.

A meiotic linkage map of the silver fox, aligned and compared to the canine genome.

A meiotic linkage map is essential for mapping traits of interest and is often the first step toward understanding a cryptic genome. Specific strains of silver fox (a variant of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes), which segregate behavioral and morphological phenotypes, create a need for such a map. One such strain, selected for docility, exhibits friendly dog-like responses to humans, in contrast to another strain selected for aggression. Development of a fox map is facilitated by the known cytogenetic homologies between the dog and fox, and by the availability of high resolution canine genome maps and sequence data. Furthermore, the high genomic sequence identity between dog and fox allows adaptation of canine microsatellites for genotyping and meiotic mapping in foxes. Using 320 such markers, we have constructed the first meiotic linkage map of the fox genome. The resulting sex-averaged map covers 16 fox autosomes and the X chromosome with an average inter-marker distance of 7.5 cM. The total map length corresponds to 1480.2 cM. From comparison of sex-averaged meiotic linkage maps of the fox and dog genomes, suppression of recombination in pericentromeric regions of the metacentric fox chromosomes was apparent, relative to the corresponding segments of acrocentric dog chromosomes. Alignment of the fox meiotic map against the 7.6x canine genome sequence revealed high conservation of marker order between homologous regions of the two species. The fox meiotic map provides a critical tool for genetic studies in foxes and identification of genetic loci and genes implicated in fox domestication.