Mapping the well-being of Norwegian mothers during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic had negative effects on many people's well-being and quality of life. In the present work, we focused on Norwegian mothers with elementary school children, and investigated whether their well-being, stress, and worries (and the relationships between them) changed across the early months of the pandemic. We collected data at two time points in 2020. In June 2020, 231 mothers (mean age = 40.09, SD = 6.22) responded to an online questionnaire in which they were asked to indicate their well-being, stress, and worries before the pandemic, during the lockdown (i.e., March 2020), and currently (i.e., June 2020). Of these 231 mothers, 97 (mean age = 40.58, SD = 5.66) answered the same questionnaire again in November 2020. Mothers' well-being was lower in November 2020 than before the pandemic (retrospectively reported). The age of the youngest child showed the strongest and most consistent relationship with mothers' well-being across all time points. In addition, we found that the stress mothers felt during the national lockdown in March 2020 was strongly associated with their well-being both during the lockdown and in June 2020. Finally, in November 2020, mothers' financial pandemic-related worries were negatively related to their well-being. Implications and suggestions for future research and for how societies can cope with future health-related crises are discussed.

Salary and power: How occupational status affects children's occupational aspirations.

In many countries, labor markets are still highly gender segregated, with very few men working in communal occupations such as nursing. Because occupational aspirations start to develop during early childhood, it seems crucial to foster our understanding of which factors affect occupational aspirations during this period. Earlier correlational research showed that the status of occupations seems to be one important factor. Therefore, in the current work, we experimentally tested the effect of two dimensions of status (i.e., salary and power) on children's occupational aspirations and examined its interaction with child gender. We also tested the relationship among gender, self-perceptions, and occupational values. Using a 2 (Salary: high vs. low) × 2 (Power: high vs. low) within-participants design (N = 127 [59 boys and 68 girls], Mage = 9.37 years, SD = 0.50) with child gender as a between-participants factor, we show positive main effects of both salary and power on children's occupational aspirations but no interaction with gender. Correlational analyses show preliminary evidence for the mediating role of agentic self-perceptions in the relationship between gender and occupational values related to status. Thus, we provide evidence for the causal effect of occupational status on children's occupational aspirations but show experimentally that this is independent of child gender. Interestingly, the correlational analyses indicate that gender norms might play a role given that boys in trend reported stronger agentic self-perceptions, which then were associated with a stronger desire to pursue high-status occupations. Implications for early interventions to reduce occupational gender segregation are discussed.

Unintentional response priming from verbal action-effect instructions.

Action-effect learning is based on a theoretical concept that actions are associated with their perceivable consequences through bidirectional associations. Past research has mostly investigated how these bidirectional associations are formed through actual behavior and perception of the consequences. The present research expands this idea by investigating how verbally formulated action-effect instructions contribute to action-effect learning. In two online experiments (Exp. 1, N = 41, student sample; Exp. 2, N = 349, non-student sample), participants memorized a specific action-effect instruction before completing a speeded categorization task. We assessed the consequences of the instructions by presenting the instructed effect as an irrelevant stimulus in the classification task and compared response errors and response times for instruction-compatible and instruction-incompatible responses. Overall, we found evidence that verbal action-effect instructions led to associations between an action and perception (effect) that are automatically activated upon encountering the previously verbally presented effect. In addition, we discuss preliminary evidence suggesting that the order of the action-effect components plays a role; only instructions in a perception-action order showed the expected effect. The present research contributes evidence to the idea that action-effect learning is not exclusively related to actual behavior but also achievable through verbally formulated instructions, thereby providing a flexible learning mechanism that does not rely on specific actual experiences.

Dealing with negative stereotypes in sports: the role of cognitive anxiety when multiple identities are activated in sensorimotor tasks.

Based on research on stereotype threat and multiple identities, this work explores the beneficial effects of activating a positive social identity when a negative identity is salient on women's performance in sports. Further, in line with research on the effects of anxiety in sports, we investigate whether the activation of a positive social identity buffers performance from cognitive anxiety associated with a negative stereotype. Two experiments tested these predictions in field settings. Experiment 1 (N = 83) shows that the simultaneous activation of a positive (i.e., member of a soccer team) and a negative social identity (i.e., woman) led to better performance than the activation of only a negative social identity for female soccer players. Experiment 2 (N = 46) demonstrates that identity condition moderated the effect of cognitive anxiety on performance for female basketball players. Results are discussed concerning multiple identities' potential for dealing with stressful situations.

Associative Learning from Verbal Action-Effect Instructions: A Replication and Investigation of Underlying Mechanisms.

According to the ideomotor principle, repeated experience with an action and its perceivable consequences (effects) establish action-effect associations. Research on verbal instructions indicates that such associations are also acquired from verbal information. In the present experiment (N = 651), first, we aimed to replicate unintentional response-priming effects from verbal action-effect instructions (direct replication; Condition 1). Second, we investigated the involvement of perceptual processes in the verbally induced response-priming effect by perceptually presenting (Condition 1) versus not presenting (Condition 2) the color that was subsequently named as an effect in the instructions. Third, we tested a saliency-based explanation of the verbally induced response-priming effect by highlighting all components (action and effect) without an association between them (Condition 3). Overall, we found the predicted response-priming effect following verbal action-effect instructions (overall conditions and in the replication Condition 1). Condition 2, which did not include perceptual information in the instructions, still showed a significant response-priming effect but was descriptively weaker compared to the effect of the replication Condition 1. Condition 3, which merely highlighted the action and effect component without endorsing an association, did not show a significant effect. In sum, our study provides further solid evidence that verbal instructions lead to unintentional response-priming effects. Other conclusions must be considered preliminary: The between-condition comparisons were descriptively in the predicted direction-perceptual aspects are relevant, and a saliency-based account can be excluded-but the differences in accuracy between conditions were not statistically significant.

From thought to action: On the relevance of including situational cues in thought about intended actions.

Successful everyday self-regulation often hinges on implementing intended responses at a later time-often in specific situations. We address this self-regulation challenge by examining the role of individuals' thought about intended actions-and specifically whether it does or does not include situational cues. We hypothesized that including situational cues when thinking about intended actions enables stimulus-response learning, thereby increasing the likelihood of implementing the intended actions. Consequently, we pre-registered and found (N = 392, age range 18-94) a positive relationship between the self-reported habitual inclusion of situational cues in thought about intended actions and everyday self-regulation success (assessed by self-reported self-efficacy and self-control beliefs). In addition, we provide exploratory evidence that the inclusion of situational cues in thought about intended actions mediates the relationship between conscientiousness and self-regulation success. We discuss the results and the theoretical perspective in relation to how self-control outcomes can be explained by associative learning.

Adaptability Protects University Students From Anxiety, Depression, and Insomnia During Remote Learning: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study From China.

The longitudinal relationship between students' pre-existing adaptability and subsequent sleep and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic has not been studied. The present study examines the relationship between adaptability and students' anxiety, depression, and insomnia during and after the lockdown related to COVID-19. 5,235 university students participated in a longitudinal study with three time points. Students completed the Adaptability Scale before the outbreak (October 2019; Time 1), the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) both during (April 2020; Time 2) and after lockdown (March 2021; Time 3), the Anxiety and Depression subscales of the SCL-90 (at Time 1 and 3), and the SAS/SDS (at Time 2). The results showed that self-reported adaptability is significantly negatively correlated with anxiety and depression, and that anxiety and depression are positively correlated with insomnia. Furthermore, adaptability protects from insomnia both directly and through its negative relationship with anxiety and depression. This study sheds light on the internal mechanisms mediating the relationship between students' adaptability and experience of insomnia in challenging circumstances. Implications for curtailing the negative effects of stressful events on students' sleep health by improving their adaptability and reducing their anxiety and depression are discussed.

Mothers' Domestic Responsibilities and Well-Being During the COVID-19 Lockdown: The Moderating Role of Gender Essentialist Beliefs About Parenthood.

The present work investigates how the increased domestic responsibilities created by the Spring 2020 lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic in Norway and gender ideologies relate to the well-being of mothers with elementary school children. In June 2020, we conducted a cross-sectional online study including current and retrospective measures with 180 mothers (M age = 39.96 years, SD = 6.11) of elementary school children across Norway. First, in line with earlier research on the strain of the pandemic on parents, and especially mothers, we found that Norwegian mothers' well-being during the lockdown significantly declined compared to before the lockdown (both measured retrospectively). Furthermore, mothers' well-being after the Spring 2020 lockdown did not immediately return to pre-lockdown levels. Finally, we predicted that gender ideologies (i.e., essentialist beliefs about parenthood) would exacerbate the negative impact of increased domestic responsibilities (i.e., childcare and housework) on mothers' well-being (i.e., higher standard-higher stress hypothesis). As predicted, for mothers who more strongly endorsed the belief that mothers are instinctively and innately better caretakers than fathers, perceptions of increased domestic responsibilities were associated with lower well-being post-lockdown. These findings point to the specific challenges mothers face in times of crisis, and the importance of addressing and confronting seemingly benevolent ideologies about motherhood that place additional burdens on women.

Implicit memory for novel associations between pictures: effects of stimulus unitization and aging.

Studies of implicit memory for novel associations have focused primarily on verbal materials and have highlighted the contribution of conceptually unitized representations to such priming. Using pictorial stimuli in a perceptual identification task, we examined whether new association priming can occur at a purely perceptual level. By manipulating the spatial contiguity of stimuli, we also evaluated whether such priming requires the creation of perceptually unitized representations. Finally, we examined the status of such priming in aging. In Experiment 1, we found that spatial contiguity of stimuli is not necessary for novel pictorial association priming to emerge, although such contiguity does enhance the magnitude of associative priming. In Experiment 2, we found that new association priming is age invariant, regardless of spatial contiguity. In Experiment 3, we provide additional evidence that pictorial association priming is perceptually based. These findings expand the scope and delineate the conditions of novel association priming and inform theories about the nature of implicit memory for new associations.

Girls' perceptions of their mothers at work and home: Warm does not mean weak.

Upper elementary school girls were surveyed about their mothers' and fathers' warmth, competence, and agency at home and how they imagine their parents at work. Mothers' warmth at home was positively correlated with perceived competence and agency both at home and at work. Differences between daughters' perceptions of their mothers and fathers at work are discussed.

Increases in Anxiety and Depression During COVID-19: A Large Longitudinal Study From China.

Although accumulating evidence suggests the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with costs in mental health, the development of students' mental health, including the change from their previous levels of depression and anxiety and the factors associated with this change, has not been well-studied. The present study investigates changes in students' anxiety and depression from before the pandemic to during the lockdown and identifies factors that are associated with these changes. 14,769 university students participated in a longitudinal study with two time points with a 6-month interval. Students completed the Anxiety and Depression subscales of the Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90) before the COVID-19 outbreak (October 2020, Time 1), and the Self-rating Anxiety Scale (SAS) and Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS) during the pandemic (April 2020, Time 2). The prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms were 1.44 and 1.46% at Time 1, and 4.06 and 22.09% at Time 2, respectively, showing a 181.94% increase in anxiety and a 1413.01% increase in depression. Furthermore, the increases in anxiety and depression from pre-pandemic levels were associated with students' gender and the severity of the pandemic in the province where they resided. This study contributes to the gap in knowledge regarding changes in students' mental health in response to the pandemic and the role of local factors in these changes. Implications for gender and the Typhoon Eye effect are discussed.

The Impact of COVID-19-Induced Changes at Schools on Elementary Students' School Engagement.

In spring 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic led to the shutdown of schools in many countries. Emerging research documents the negative effects of the pandemic and particularly of the shutdown of schools on children's well-being. The present research extends this research by investigating how structural changes made in schools upon reopening to align with COVID-19 restrictions were related to children's emotional school engagement and subjective well-being. An online questionnaire with elementary school children and their parents conducted in Norway in June 2020 (N = 93 parent-child dyads; 46 boys, 47 girls; mean age children = 9.70 years, SD = 1.81) assessed structural changes in schools and children's coping with these changes, emotional school engagement, subjective well-being, self-reported performance in school, and demographics. Results showed that neither receiving a new teacher nor being assigned to a new (smaller) group were associated with negative outcomes. However, children who did not like their new group showed reduced emotional school engagement and subjective well-being, indicating that specific students particularly suffered from the pandemic-induced restrictions. The relationship between liking one's group and SWB was mediated by emotional school engagement. Applied and theoretical implications are discussed.

Embodying the Police: The Effects of Enclothed Cognition on Shooting Decisions.

The theory of enclothed cognition proposes that wearing physical articles of clothing can trigger psychological processes and behavioral tendencies connected to their symbolic meaning. Furthermore, past research has found that increases in power are associated with greater approach orientation and action tendencies. In this study, we integrate these two literatures to examine how embodying the role of a police officer through wearing a uniform would affect responses on a reaction-time measure known as the Shooter Task. This first-person video game simulation requires participants to shoot or not shoot targets holding guns or objects. The task typically elicits a stereotypical pattern of responses, such that unarmed Black versus White targets are more likely to be mistakenly shot and armed Black versus White targets are more likely to be correctly shot. Based on the relationship between power and action, we hypothesized that participants who were randomly assigned to wear a police uniform would show more shooting errors, particularly false alarms, than control participants. Consistent with our hypotheses, participants in uniform were more likely to shoot unarmed targets, regardless of their race. Moreover, this pattern was partially moderated by attitudes about the police and their abuse of power. Specifically, uniformed participants who justified police use of power were more likely to shoot innocent targets than those who were wary of it. We discuss implications for police perceptions and the theory of enclothed cognition more broadly.

Adaptability Promotes Student Engagement Under COVID-19: The Multiple Mediating Effects of Academic Emotion.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of students in China followed an emergency policy called "Suspending Classes without Stopping Learning" to continue their study online as schools across the country were closed. The present study examines how students adapted to learning online in these unprecedented circumstances. We aimed to explore the relationship between adaptability, academic emotion, and student engagement during COVID-19. 1,119 university students from 20 provinces participated in this longitudinal study (2 time points with a 2-week interval). The results showed that adaptability (the ability to respond to changes) and student engagement are significantly positively correlated with positive academic emotion and negatively correlated with negative academic emotion. Furthermore, adaptability not only directly predicts student engagement, but also affects student engagement through the chain mediation of positive academic emotion and negative academic emotion. The results contribute to the gap in knowledge regarding changes in students' learning in response to the outbreak. This study further explains the internal mechanisms mediating the relationship between adaptability and student engagement. It may provide references for educational researchers and universities in dampening the negative effects of COVID-19 on students' learning by improving their adaptability and developing positive academic emotions.

Artist Impact: Effects of Live Art on Patients and Staff in an Outpatient Chemotherapy Treatment Environment.

BACKGROUND: Visual art and music have been found to improve the emotions and moods of patients and healthcare staff, and attendance of live performances has been shown to foster social interaction. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to explore the effects of a visual artist on patients and nursing staff in an outpatient chemotherapy treatment environment. METHODS: During an eight-week period, an artist painted in an outpatient chemotherapy treatment room, either interacting with patients (six weeks) or quietly painting while wearing headphones (two weeks). A total of 73 surveys were completed by patients and staff, providing quantitative and qualitative data about anxiety, distraction, enjoyment, and social interaction. FINDINGS: Patients evaluated the experience positively, whether the artist was interacting with them or not. However, according to patient- and staff-reported data, greater social interaction occurred during the interaction weeks. Nurses reported that the artist's presence made their job easier, with a stronger effect observed during the interaction weeks.

Motivated to penalize: women's strategic rejection of successful women.

Two studies tested the hypothesis that females penalize women who succeed in male gender-typed jobs to salvage their own self-views regarding competence. The authors proposed that women are motivated to penalize successful women (i.e., characterize them as unlikable and interpersonally hostile) to minimize the self-evaluative consequences of social comparison with a highly successful female target. Results supported the hypothesis. Whereas both male and female participants penalized successful women, blocking this penalization reduced female--but not male--participants' self-ratings of competence (Study 1). Moreover, positive feedback provided to female participants about their potential to succeed (Study 2) weakened negative reactions to successful women without costs to subsequent self-ratings of competence. These results suggest that the interpersonal derogation of successful women by other women functions as a self-protective strategy against threatening upward social comparisons.

From conscious thought to automatic action: A simulation account of action planning.

We provide a theoretical framework and empirical evidence for how verbally planning an action creates direct perception-action links and behavioral automaticity. We argue that planning actions in an if (situation)-then (action) format induces sensorimotor simulations (i.e., activity patterns reenacting the event in the sensory and motor brain areas) of the anticipated situation and the intended action. Due to their temporal overlap, these activity patterns become linked. Whenever the previously simulated situation is encountered, the previously simulated action is partially reactivated through spreading activation and thus more likely to be executed. In 4 experiments (N = 363), we investigated the relation between specific if-then action plans worded to activate simulations of elbow flexion versus extension movements and actual elbow flexion versus extension movements in a subsequent, ostensibly unrelated categorization task. As expected, linking a critical stimulus to intended actions that implied elbow flexion movements (e.g., grabbing it for consumption) subsequently facilitated elbow flexion movements upon encountering the critical stimulus. However, linking a critical stimulus to actions that implied elbow extension movements (e.g., pointing at it) subsequently facilitated elbow extension movements upon encountering the critical stimulus. Thus, minor differences (i.e., exchanging the words "point at" with "grab") in verbally formulated action plans (i.e., conscious thought) had systematic consequences on subsequent actions. The question of how conscious thought can induce stimulus-triggered action is illuminated by the provided theoretical framework and the respective empirical evidence, facilitating the understanding of behavioral automaticity and human agency. (PsycINFO Database Record

Exclusion as self-protection: the function of subtypes for ingroup members.

Three studies examined the consequences of subtyping ingroup members for evaluations of the self. The first study examined the impact of subtyping high-performing or low-performing ingroup members on self-evaluations. Study 2 employed an alternative manipulation of subtyping. Given the observed benefits of subtyping low-performing ingroup members for the group and the benefits of subtyping high-performing ingroup members for the self, Study 3 investigated participants' subtyping target selection (i.e., high-performing vs. low-performing ingroup members) when the focus of the sorting task was on self-evaluations or group evaluations. In sum, these studies suggest that subtyping ingroup members can serve a self-protective function.