Olfactory discrimination and memory deficits in the Flinders Sensitive Line rodent model of depression.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a heterogeneous psychiatric disorder with broad symptomatic manifestations. The current study examined, for the first time, olfactory memory and discrimination in the Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rodent model of depression. Male FSL rats and controls were trained on an Olfactory Discrimination (OD) and a Social Interaction (SI) test. On the OD test, the FSL and controls performed similarly at the shortest inter-trial interval (5min), however, with extended delay of 30min, the FSLs had a recall and odour discrimination deficit. At the longest delay (60min) both groups performed poorly. The FSL rats i.) had a deficit in olfactory discrimination suggesting impairment in olfactory memory and recall; ii.) were less likely to socialize with unfamiliar rats. The data suggests that FSL animals have an impaired olfactory information processing capacity.

Persistent overexpression of interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in murine silicosis.

The cytokines interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha), derived from macrophages and other cells, may promote mononuclear cell inflammation and fibrosis in pulmonary silicosis. C3H/HeN mice were exposed to control air or to an aerosol of 70 mg/m3 cristobalite silica for 5 h/d for 12 days and examined at 2 and 16 weeks after exposure. This exposure resulted in murine silicosis, as manifested by focal mononuclear cell accumulations, diffuse interstitial fibrosis, lymphoid tissue enlargement, recruitment of inflammatory cells into BAL fluid, and increased total lung collagen. Semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) with designed primers and membrane hybridization with biotinylated cDNA probes were used to assess the abundance of IL-1beta and TNFalpha mRNA. In situ hybridization with digoxigenin-labeled cDNA probes was used to localize gene expression. Persistent overexpression of both IL-1beta and TNFalpha were found at 2 and 16 weeks in the lungs of silica-exposed mice compared with air-sham control mice. IL-1beta and TNFalpha expression localized to individual mononuclear cells in the alveolar spaces, groups of cells within the aggregate lesions, and scattered mononuclear cells in BALT and lymphoid nodules. Thus, cells producing IL-1beta and TNFalpha appear to be intimately associated with the evolving lesions of silicosis, and the lymphoid tissue of the lung may be important in driving the pathogenesis of this disease.

Lymphocytes, lymphokines, and silicosis.

Silicosis is characterized by mononuclear cell aggregation with mineral particles and fibrosis. Lymphocytes are abundant in these lesions. We exposed inbred strains of mice to a respirable aerosol of cristobalite silica (70 mg/m3, 5 h/d, 12 d) or shamair. Silicosis evolved over months after exposure. The silica-exposed mice showed the accumulation of lymphocytes in alveolar spaces (seen in bronchoalveolar lavage), in lung parenchymal lesions and nodules, and in enlarged bronchial-associated lymphoid tissues and thoracic lymph nodes. The lung lymphocytes were predominantly CD4+ T cells, but numerous CD8+ T cells, natural killer cells, and CD4- gammadelta-TCR+ T cells were present as well. Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) production was upregulated, suggesting a THelper-1-like response in silicosis. In silicotic lung tissue, mRNA transcripts for the macrophage-derived cytokines IL-12 and -18 were increased. IFN-gamma gene-deleted mice (C57Bl/6-Ifngtm1 Ts) exposed to silica developed less extensive silicosis and less lung collagen accumulation than wild-type mice. We hypothesize that there is a reiterative amplification cycle in which macrophages with silica may produce cytokines, such as IL-12 and -18, that attract and activate lymphocytes. These activated lymphocytes may then produce additional mediators that in turn attract and activate an expanded secondary population of macrophages. IFN-gamma would be a likely cause of macrophage activation in this cycle. More work is needed to understand the biological events that lead from the inhaled dust to the scarred lung, and to clarify the role of lymphocytes in this process.

Interferon-gamma production by specific lung lymphocyte phenotypes in silicosis in mice.

We recently described overproduction of interferon (IFN)-gamma by lung lymphocytes in mice with silicosis (11% of cells in air-control versus 19% of cells from silica-exposed mice; Davis and colleagues, Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 1999;20:813-824). We hypothesized that the increased IFN-gamma production might be due to selective enrichment of one lymphocyte phenotype. To test this hypothesis, small mononuclear cells from lung digest preparations of mice exposed 4 mo previously to cristobalite silica (70 mg/m(3), 12 d, 5 h/d) or to sham-air were stained for intracellular cytokines and surface antigen phenotypes, and examined by flow cytometry. Air-sham mouse lung digests included CD4(+) (16%) and CD8(+) (6%) T cells, gammadelta T-cell antigen receptor (TCR)(+) CD4(-)CD8(-) T cells (3%), natural killer (NK) cells (15%), B cells (6%), and macrophages (12%). The total number of lung lymphocytes was increased 1.7-fold in silicosis, but the phenotype frequencies did not change significantly. In the control lungs IFN-gamma was produced by three major phenotypes of lymphocytes: 5% of CD4(+) T cells, 5% of gammadelta-TCR(+) CD4(-)CD8(-) T cells, and 2% of NK cells. The percentage of each type producing IFN-gamma was increased 2- to 3-fold in silicosis. When multiplied by cell number, the increased percentages yielded a 3- to 5-fold increase in the total number of each IFN- gamma-producing phenotype in the lung. Our results demonstrate no selective phenotype enrichment but upregulated IFN-gamma production by at least three lymphocyte phenotypes. IFN-gamma may be an important signal driving lymphocyte differentiation and macrophage activation in silicosis.

Expansion of interferon-gamma-producing lung lymphocytes in mouse silicosis.

Silicosis is characterized by mononuclear cell inflammation with macrophage activation, accumulation of lymphocytes, and fibrosis. Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) is a lymphocyte cytokine with broad effects, particularly macrophage activation. Mice exposed to an aerosol of cristobalite silica (70 mg/m3, 12 d, 5 h/d) developed diffuse pulmonary pathologic changes with macrophage, lymphocyte, and neutrophil recruitment, and increased lung collagen. IFN-gamma messenger RNA (mRNA) was more abundant by semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in the lungs of silica-exposed mice than in control animals. IFN-gamma mRNA transcripts were detected by in situ hybridization with digoxigenin-labeled complementary DNA probes in normal mouse lung tissue within bronchial-associated lymphoid tissues (BALT). In silica- exposed mice, mononuclear cells with IFN-gamma mRNA were more numerous in the silicotic lesions and enlarged BALT structures. Lung-cell suspensions were prepared by enzyme digestion, stained with fluorescent-labeled antibodies against intracellular cytokines, and enumerated by flow cytometry. The percentage of cells producing IFN-gamma was increased in silicotic mice (19% versus 11%). Interleukin (IL)-4 mRNA transcripts were less abundant in the lung tissue from silica-exposed mice than in control mice. Cells staining for IL-4 mRNA were found rarely in either the air-sham or the silica-exposed mouse lungs, and almost all appeared to be within BALT structures. Approximately 3% of cells stained for IL-4 in the digested lungs from both groups. Similar cytokine patterns were observed in mediastinal lymph node/thymus and spleen tissues. The augmented IFN-gamma response, with IL-4 unchanged or decreased, in the lung lesions and lymphoid tissue of mice with silicosis suggests a Th-1-like lymphocyte-mediated immune-inflammatory response.

Rapid early onset lymphocyte cell death in mice resistant, but not susceptible to Leishmania major infection.

Leishmania major (Lm) infection in mice is a prototypical model for the role of immune deviation in disease resistance. Resistant strains of mice develop a Th1 response to Lm infection, distinguished by secretion of IL-12 and interferon gamma. In contrast, susceptible strains display sustained IL-4 expression characteristic of a Th2 response. However, when mechanisms of cell death are blocked, mice display a susceptible phenotype even in the presence of a strong Th1 response, suggesting that cell death, and not cytokine bias, may be an important factor in disease resistance. Here, we investigated this hypothesis by comparing lymphocyte cellularity, cell death and Fas expression in resistant CBA and susceptible BALB/c mice during the course of Lm infection. We found that delayed onset of cell death and late Fas induction correlated with massive lymphocyte accumulation and susceptibility to leishmaniasis, while early cell death and rapid Fas induction occurred in resistant mice.