Very-High Dynamic Range, 10,000 Frames/Second Pixel Array Detector for Electron Microscopy.

Precision and accuracy of quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) methods such as ptychography, and the mapping of electric, magnetic, and strain fields depend on the dose. Reasonable acquisition time requires high beam current and the ability to quantitatively detect both large and minute changes in signal. A new hybrid pixel array detector (PAD), the second-generation Electron Microscope Pixel Array Detector (EMPAD-G2), addresses this challenge by advancing the technology of a previous generation PAD, the EMPAD. The EMPAD-G2 images continuously at a frame-rates up to 10 kHz with a dynamic range that spans from low-noise detection of single electrons to electron beam currents exceeding 180 pA per pixel, even at electron energies of 300 keV. The EMPAD-G2 enables rapid collection of high-quality STEM data that simultaneously contain full diffraction information from unsaturated bright-field disks to usable Kikuchi bands and higher-order Laue zones. Test results from 80 to 300 keV are presented, as are first experimental results demonstrating ptychographic reconstructions, strain and polarization maps. We introduce a new information metric, the maximum usable imaging speed (MUIS), to identify when a detector becomes electron-starved, saturated or its pixel count is mismatched with the beam current.

High-speed X-ray imaging pixel array detector for synchrotron bunch isolation.

A wide-dynamic-range imaging X-ray detector designed for recording successive frames at rates up to 10 MHz is described. X-ray imaging with frame rates of up to 6.5 MHz have been experimentally verified. The pixel design allows for up to 8-12 frames to be stored internally at high speed before readout, which occurs at a 1 kHz frame rate. An additional mode of operation allows the integration capacitors to be re-addressed repeatedly before readout which can enhance the signal-to-noise ratio of cyclical processes. This detector, along with modern storage ring sources which provide short (10-100 ps) and intense X-ray pulses at megahertz rates, opens new avenues for the study of rapid structural changes in materials. The detector consists of hybridized modules, each of which is comprised of a 500 µm-thick silicon X-ray sensor solder bump-bonded, pixel by pixel, to an application-specific integrated circuit. The format of each module is 128 × 128 pixels with a pixel pitch of 150 µm. In the prototype detector described here, the three-side buttable modules are tiled in a 3 × 2 array with a full format of 256 × 384 pixels. The characteristics, operation, testing and application of the detector are detailed.

High Dynamic Range Pixel Array Detector for Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy.

We describe a hybrid pixel array detector (electron microscope pixel array detector, or EMPAD) adapted for use in electron microscope applications, especially as a universal detector for scanning transmission electron microscopy. The 128×128 pixel detector consists of a 500 µm thick silicon diode array bump-bonded pixel-by-pixel to an application-specific integrated circuit. The in-pixel circuitry provides a 1,000,000:1 dynamic range within a single frame, allowing the direct electron beam to be imaged while still maintaining single electron sensitivity. A 1.1 kHz framing rate enables rapid data collection and minimizes sample drift distortions while scanning. By capturing the entire unsaturated diffraction pattern in scanning mode, one can simultaneously capture bright field, dark field, and phase contrast information, as well as being able to analyze the full scattering distribution, allowing true center of mass imaging. The scattering is recorded on an absolute scale, so that information such as local sample thickness can be directly determined. This paper describes the detector architecture, data acquisition system, and preliminary results from experiments with 80-200 keV electron beams.

High-dynamic-range coherent diffractive imaging: ptychography using the mixed-mode pixel array detector.

Coherent (X-ray) diffractive imaging (CDI) is an increasingly popular form of X-ray microscopy, mainly due to its potential to produce high-resolution images and the lack of an objective lens between the sample and its corresponding imaging detector. One challenge, however, is that very high dynamic range diffraction data must be collected to produce both quantitative and high-resolution images. In this work, hard X-ray ptychographic coherent diffractive imaging has been performed at the P10 beamline of the PETRA III synchrotron to demonstrate the potential of a very wide dynamic range imaging X-ray detector (the Mixed-Mode Pixel Array Detector, or MM-PAD). The detector is capable of single photon detection, detecting fluxes exceeding 1 × 10(8) 8-keV photons pixel(-1) s(-1), and framing at 1 kHz. A ptychographic reconstruction was performed using a peak focal intensity on the order of 1 × 10(10) photons µm(-2) s(-1) within an area of approximately 325 nm × 603 nm. This was done without need of a beam stop and with a very modest attenuation, while `still' images of the empty beam far-field intensity were recorded without any attenuation. The treatment of the detector frames and CDI methodology for reconstruction of non-sensitive detector regions, partially also extending the active detector area, are described.

Real-Space x-ray tomographic reconstruction of randomly oriented objects with sparse data frames.

Schemes for X-ray imaging single protein molecules using new x-ray sources, like x-ray free electron lasers (XFELs), require processing many frames of data that are obtained by taking temporally short snapshots of identical molecules, each with a random and unknown orientation. Due to the small size of the molecules and short exposure times, average signal levels of much less than 1 photon/pixel/frame are expected, much too low to be processed using standard methods. One approach to process the data is to use statistical methods developed in the EMC algorithm (Loh & Elser, Phys. Rev. E, 2009) which processes the data set as a whole. In this paper we apply this method to a real-space tomographic reconstruction using sparse frames of data (below 10(-2) photons/pixel/frame) obtained by performing x-ray transmission measurements of a low-contrast, randomly-oriented object. This extends the work by Philipp et al. (Optics Express, 2012) to three dimensions and is one step closer to the single molecule reconstruction problem.

Solving structure with sparse, randomly-oriented x-ray data.

Single-particle imaging experiments of biomolecules at x-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) require processing hundreds of thousands of images that contain very few x-rays. Each low-fluence image of the diffraction pattern is produced by a single, randomly oriented particle, such as a protein. We demonstrate the feasibility of recovering structural information at these extremes using low-fluence images of a randomly oriented 2D x-ray mask. Successful reconstruction is obtained with images averaging only 2.5 photons per frame, where it seems doubtful there could be information about the state of rotation, let alone the image contrast. This is accomplished with an expectation maximization algorithm that processes the low-fluence data in aggregate, and without any prior knowledge of the object or its orientation. The versatility of the method promises, more generally, to redefine what measurement scenarios can provide useful signal.

Erratum: Reconstructing three-dimensional protein crystal intensities from sparse unoriented two-axis X-ray diffraction patterns. Corrigendum.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1107/S1600576717006537.].

Solving protein structure from sparse serial microcrystal diffraction data at a storage-ring synchrotron source.

In recent years, the success of serial femtosecond crystallography and the paucity of beamtime at X-ray free-electron lasers have motivated the development of serial microcrystallography experiments at storage-ring synchrotron sources. However, especially at storage-ring sources, if a crystal is too small it will have suffered significant radiation damage before diffracting a sufficient number of X-rays into Bragg peaks for peak-indexing software to determine the crystal orientation. As a consequence, the data frames of small crystals often cannot be indexed and are discarded. Introduced here is a method based on the expand-maximize-compress (EMC) algorithm to solve protein structures, specifically from data frames for which indexing methods fail because too few X-rays are diffracted into Bragg peaks. The method is demonstrated on a real serial microcrystallography data set whose signals are too weak to be indexed by conventional methods. In spite of the daunting background scatter from the sample-delivery medium, it was still possible to solve the protein structure at 2.1 Šresolution. The ability of the EMC algorithm to analyze weak data frames will help to reduce sample consumption. It will also allow serial microcrystallography to be performed with crystals that are otherwise too small to be feasibly analyzed at storage-ring sources.

Reconstructing three-dimensional protein crystal intensities from sparse unoriented two-axis X-ray diffraction patterns.

Recently, there has been a growing interest in adapting serial microcrystallography (SMX) experiments to existing storage ring (SR) sources. For very small crystals, however, radiation damage occurs before sufficient numbers of photons are diffracted to determine the orientation of the crystal. The challenge is to merge data from a large number of such 'sparse' frames in order to measure the full reciprocal space intensity. To simulate sparse frames, a dataset was collected from a large lysozyme crystal illuminated by a dim X-ray source. The crystal was continuously rotated about two orthogonal axes to sample a subset of the rotation space. With the EMC algorithm [expand-maximize-compress; Loh & Elser (2009). Phys. Rev. E, 80, 026705], it is shown that the diffracted intensity of the crystal can still be reconstructed even without knowledge of the orientation of the crystal in any sparse frame. Moreover, parallel computation implementations were designed to considerably improve the time and memory scaling of the algorithm. The results show that EMC-based SMX experiments should be feasible at SR sources.

Protein crystal structure from non-oriented, single-axis sparse X-ray data.

X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) have inspired the development of serial femtosecond crystallography (SFX) as a method to solve the structure of proteins. SFX datasets are collected from a sequence of protein microcrystals injected across ultrashort X-ray pulses. The idea behind SFX is that diffraction from the intense, ultrashort X-ray pulses leaves the crystal before the crystal is obliterated by the effects of the X-ray pulse. The success of SFX at XFELs has catalyzed interest in analogous experiments at synchrotron-radiation (SR) sources, where data are collected from many small crystals and the ultrashort pulses are replaced by exposure times that are kept short enough to avoid significant crystal damage. The diffraction signal from each short exposure is so 'sparse' in recorded photons that the process of recording the crystal intensity is itself a reconstruction problem. Using the EMC algorithm, a successful reconstruction is demonstrated here in a sparsity regime where there are no Bragg peaks that conventionally would serve to determine the orientation of the crystal in each exposure. In this proof-of-principle experiment, a hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL) crystal rotating about a single axis was illuminated by an X-ray beam from an X-ray generator to simulate the diffraction patterns of microcrystals from synchrotron radiation. Millions of these sparse frames, typically containing only ∼200 photons per frame, were recorded using a fast-framing detector. It is shown that reconstruction of three-dimensional diffraction intensity is possible using the EMC algorithm, even with these extremely sparse frames and without knowledge of the rotation angle. Further, the reconstructed intensity can be phased and refined to solve the protein structure using traditional crystallographic software. This suggests that synchrotron-based serial crystallography of micrometre-sized crystals can be practical with the aid of the EMC algorithm even in cases where the data are sparse.

Determination of crystallographic intensities from sparse data.

X-ray serial microcrystallography involves the collection and merging of frames of diffraction data from randomly oriented protein microcrystals. The number of diffracted X-rays in each frame is limited by radiation damage, and this number decreases with crystal size. The data in the frame are said to be sparse if too few X-rays are collected to determine the orientation of the microcrystal. It is commonly assumed that sparse crystal diffraction frames cannot be merged, thereby setting a lower limit to the size of microcrystals that may be merged with a given source fluence. The EMC algorithm [Loh & Elser (2009 ▶), Phys. Rev. E, 80, 026705] has previously been applied to reconstruct structures from sparse noncrystalline data of objects with unknown orientations [Philipp et al. (2012 ▶), Opt. Express, 20, 13129-13137; Ayyer et al. (2014 ▶), Opt. Express, 22, 2403-2413]. Here, it is shown that sparse data which cannot be oriented on a per-frame basis can be used effectively as crystallographic data. As a proof-of-principle, reconstruction of the three-dimensional diffraction intensity using sparse data frames from a 1.35 kDa molecule crystal is demonstrated. The results suggest that serial microcrystallography is, in principle, not limited by the fluence of the X-ray source, and collection of complete data sets should be feasible at, for instance, storage-ring X-ray sources.

High-speed in situ X-ray scattering of carbon nanotube film nucleation and self-organization.

The production of high-performance carbon nanotube (CNT) materials demands understanding of the growth behavior of individual CNTs as well as collective effects among CNTs. We demonstrate the first use of grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering to monitor in real time the synthesis of CNT films by chemical vapor deposition. We use a custom-built cold-wall reactor along with a high-speed pixel array detector resulting in a time resolution of 10 msec. Quantitative models applied to time-resolved X-ray scattering patterns reveal that the Fe catalyst film first rapidly dewets into well-defined hemispherical particles during heating in a reducing atmosphere, and then the particles coarsen slowly upon continued annealing. After introduction of the carbon source, the initial CNT diameter distribution closely matches that of the catalyst particles. However, significant changes in CNT diameter can occur quickly during the subsequent CNT self-organization process. Correlation of time-resolved orientation data to X-ray scattering intensity and height kinetics suggests that the rate of self-organization is driven by both the CNT growth rate and density, and vertical CNT growth begins abruptly when CNT alignment reaches a critical threshold. The dynamics of CNT size evolution and self-organization vary according to the catalyst annealing conditions and substrate temperature. Knowledge of these intrinsically rapid processes is vital to improve control of CNT structure and to enable efficient manufacturing of high-density arrays of long, straight CNTs.

High-resolution protein structure determination by serial femtosecond crystallography.

Structure determination of proteins and other macromolecules has historically required the growth of high-quality crystals sufficiently large to diffract x-rays efficiently while withstanding radiation damage. We applied serial femtosecond crystallography (SFX) using an x-ray free-electron laser (XFEL) to obtain high-resolution structural information from microcrystals (less than 1 micrometer by 1 micrometer by 3 micrometers) of the well-characterized model protein lysozyme. The agreement with synchrotron data demonstrates the immediate relevance of SFX for analyzing the structure of the large group of difficult-to-crystallize molecules.