The Contribution of Text Characteristics to Reading Comprehension: Investigating the Influence of Text Emotionality.

In the current study, we examined relations between text features (e.g., word concreteness, referential cohesion) and reading comprehension using multilevel logistic models. The sample was 158 native English-speaking students between 8 years 8 months and 11 years 2 months of age with a wide range of reading ability. In line with the simple view of reading, decoding ability and language comprehension were associated with reading comprehension performance. Text characteristics, including indices of word frequency, number of pronouns, word concreteness, and deep cohesion, also predicted unique variance in reading comprehension performance over and above the simple view's components. Additionally, the emotional charge of text (i.e., lexical ratings of arousal) predicted reading comprehension beyond traditional person-level and text-based characteristics. These findings add to a small but growing body of evidence suggesting that it is important to consider emotional charge in addition to person-level and text-based characteristics to better understand reading comprehension performance.

The relationship between cognitive skills and reading comprehension of narrative and expository texts: A longitudinal study from Grade 1 to Grade 4.

Following the increased emphasis on expository text in early grades, this study examined narrative and expository reading comprehension growth in a sample of children who were followed longitudinally from grades 1 to 4, with the goals of explaining potential differences in children's overall performance and growth of narrative and expository text comprehension and identifying the cognitive factors that distinctly contribute to comprehension for each text type. We hypothesized that differences in reading comprehension growth of narrative and expository texts would be explained by various cognitive factors, specifically those related to executive functions (EF; e.g., working memory, planning/organization, shifting, and inhibition). At four annual time points, children (n= 94) read, retold (Recall), and answered questions (CompQ) about expository and narrative passages. Growth curve modeling was used to explore reading comprehension development across the two types of text. On average, results showed that children scored better on reading comprehension of narrative passages than they did on expository passages across all time points. After controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), vocabulary in 1st grade predicted 4th grade comprehension scores (Recall) for both narrative and expository passages, while word reading efficiency (WRE) in 1st grade predicted 4th grade comprehension scores (CompQ) for expository passages only. Additionally, WRE was associated with the growth of expository reading comprehension: children with higher WRE showed a faster growth rate for expository CompQ. The contribution of EF to text comprehension was largely confined to expository text, although planning and organization (measured using a direct cognitive assessment) in 1st grade also predicted 4th grade comprehension scores for narrative text Recall. For expository text comprehens ion, working memory, planning and organization, shifting, and inhibition (measured using a parent rating scale), predicted reading comprehension outcomes. Critically, 1st grade shifting and inhibition not only predicted 4th grade expository text comprehension (CompQ), but also modulated its growth rate: children with stronger shifting and inhibition had faster rates of growth. Together, these findings suggest that expository reading comprehension is (1) more difficult than narrative reading comprehension and (2) is associated with unique cognitive skills.

The relation between reading and externalizing behavior: a correlational meta-analysis.

Reading proficiency is important because it has life-long consequences and influences success in other academic areas. Many students with behavior problems are poor readers and many students with learning disabilities have more behavior problems than their typical peers. We conducted a correlational meta-analysis to examine the association between reading and externalizing behavior in students ages 5-12. We identified 33 studies that reported 88 effect sizes. Using a random-effects linear regression model with robust variance estimation, we found a significant, negative correlation (r= -0.1698, SE = 0.01, p < 0.0001) between reading and externalizing behavior. We tested several moderators related to measurement and sample characteristics. We found that rater type, behavior dimension (e.g., aggression), time between longitudinal measurement points, age of the sample, and percentage male of the sample moderated the relation between reading and behavior. Whether the reading assessment measured comprehension or word reading and socioeconomic status of the sample did not moderate the relation. Understanding the association between reading and externalizing behavior has implications for disability identification and intervention practices for children in elementary school. Future research should examine shared cognitive factors and environmental influences that explain the relation between the constructs.

Using Chained or Tandem Schedules With Functional Communication Training: A Systematic Review.

Chained and tandem schedules are a common method for thinning schedules of reinforcement following functional communication training (FCT) in the treatment of problem behavior. We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of chained and tandem schedules following FCT to describe treatment characteristics and evaluate effects. We identified 38 articles and found reductions in problem behavior across four measures. Results of a random-effects multilevel meta-analysis of rigorous evaluations showed a significant effect of chained or tandem schedules + FCT on problem behavior relative to baseline. We observed resurgence in 77% of cases and 31% of schedule-thinning transitions. Results showed chained schedules resulted in greater reductions in problem behavior relative to tandem schedules. Exploratory moderator analyses suggested extinction, combined reinforcement, and delay and denial tolerance training procedures were associated with greater reductions in problem behavior relative to other treatment characteristics. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Impact of COVID-19 on Children's Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptomology, Daily Life, and Problem Behavior During Virtual Learning.

To explore the impact of COVID-19 on daily life and problem behavior during virtual learning, we created and administered a survey to 64 school-aged children (in 2019, M = 9.84 years; SD = 0.55 years). Results indicated significant increases in hyperactivity (t = -2.259; p = .027) and inattention (t = -2.811; p = .007) from 2019 to 2020. Decreases in sleep were associated with increases in hyperactivity (B = -0.27; p = .04); increases in time exercising were associated with smaller increases in inattention (B = -0.34, p = .01); and higher levels of parent stress, specifically related to virtual learning, were associated with increases in child inattention (B = 0.57, p = .01). Furthermore, hyperactivity predicted problem behavior during virtual learning (B = 0.31, p = .03).

Executive functions and components of oral reading fluency through the lens of text complexity.

As readers struggle to coordinate various reading- and language-related skills during oral reading fluency (ORF), miscues can emerge, especially when processing complex texts. Following a miscue, students often self-correct as a strategy to potentially restore ORF and online linguistic comprehension. Executive functions (EF) are hypothesized to play an interactive role during ORF. Yet, the role of EF in self-corrections while reading complex texts remains elusive. To this end, we evaluated the relation between students' probability of self-correcting miscues-or P(SC)-and their EF profile in a cohort of 143 participants (aged 9-15) who represented a diverse spectrum of reading abilities. Moreover, we used experimentally-manipulated passages (decoding, vocabulary, syntax, and cohesion) and employed a fully cross-classified mixed-effects multilevel regression strategy to evaluate the interplay between components of ORF, EF, and text complexity. Our results revealed that, after controlling for reading and language abilities, increased production of miscues across different passage conditions was explained by worse EF. We also found that students with better EF exhibited greater P(SC) when reading complex texts. While text complexity taxes students' EF and influences their production of miscues, findings suggest that EF may be interactively recruited to restore ORF via self-correcting oral reading errors. Overall, our results suggest that domain-general processes (e.g., EF) are associated with production of miscues and may underlie students' behavior of self-corrections, especially when reading complex texts. Further understanding of the relation between different components of ORF and cognitive processes may inform intervention strategies to improve reading proficiency and overall academic performance.