Effects of exercise during chemo- or radiotherapy on immune markers - a systematic review.

Introduction Patients with cancer receiving radio- or chemotherapy undergo many immunological stressors. Chronic regular exercise was shown to positively influence the immune system in several populations, while exercise overload may have negative effects. Exercise is currently recommended for all patients with cancer. However, knowledge regarding the effects of exercise on immune markers in patients undergoing chemo- or radiotherapy is limited. The aim of this study is to systematically review the effects of moderate and high intensity exercise interventions in patients with cancer during chemotherapy or radiotherapy, on immune markers. Methods For this review, a search was performed in PubMed and EMBASE, until March 2023. Methodological quality was assessed with the Pedro tool and best-evidence syntheses were performed both per immune marker and for the inflammatory profile. Results Methodological quality of the 15 included articles was rated fair to good. The majority of markers was unaltered, but observed effects included a suppressive effect of exercise during radiotherapy on some pro-inflammatory markers, a preserving effect of exercise during chemotherapy on NK cell degranulation and cytotoxicity, a protective effect on the decrease in thrombocytes during chemotherapy, and a positive effect of exercise during chemotherapy on IgA. Discussion/conclusion Although exercise only influenced a few markers, the results are promising. Exercise did not negatively influence immune markers, and some were positively affected since suppressed inflammation might have positive clinical implications. For future research, consensus is needed regarding a set of markers that are most responsive to exercise. Next, differential effects of training types and intensities on these markers should be further investigated, as well as their clinical implications.

Short-term associations between barbecue fumes and respiratory health in young adults.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies have associated biomass combustion with (respiratory) morbidity and mortality, primarily in indoor settings. Barbecuing results in high outdoor air pollution exposures, but the health effects are unknown. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to investigate short-term changes in respiratory health in healthy adults, associated with exposure to barbecue fumes. METHODS: 16 healthy, adult volunteers were exposed to barbecue smoke in outdoor air in rest during 1.5 h, using a repeated-measures design. Major air pollutants were monitored on-site, including particulate matter <2.5 µm (PM2.5), particle number concentrations (PNC) and black- and brown carbon. At the same place and time-of-day, subjects participated in a control session, during which they were not exposed to barbecue smoke. Before and immediately after all sessions lung function was measured. Before, immediately after, 4- and 18 h post-sessions nasal expression levels of interleukin (IL)-8, IL6 and Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNFα) were determined in nasal swabs, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Associations between major air pollutants, lung function and inflammatory markers were assessed using mixed linear regression models. RESULTS: High PM2.5 levels and PNCs were observed during barbecue sessions, with averages ranging from 553 to 1062 µg/m3 and 109,000-463,000 pt/cm3, respectively. Average black- and brown carbon levels ranged between 4.1-13.0 and 5.0-16.2 µg/m3. A 1000 µg/m3 increase in PM2.5 was associated with 2.37 (0.97, 4.67) and 2.21 (0.98, 5.00) times higher expression of IL8, immediately- and 18 h after exposure. No associations were found between air pollutants and lung function, or the expression of IL6 or TNFα. DISCUSSION: Short-term exposure to air pollutants emitted from barbecuing was associated with a mild respiratory response in healthy young adults, including prolonged increase in nasal IL8 without a change in lung function and other measured inflammatory markers. The results might indicate prolonged respiratory inflammation, due to short-term exposure to barbecue fumes.

Nanomaterials and the Serosal Immune System in the Thoracic and Peritoneal Cavities.

The thoracic and peritoneal cavities are lined by serous membranes and are home of the serosal immune system. This immune system fuses innate and adaptive immunity, to maintain local homeostasis and repair local tissue damage, and to cooperate closely with the mucosal immune system. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are found abundantly in the thoracic and peritoneal cavities, and they are crucial in first defense against pathogenic viruses and bacteria. Nanomaterials (NMs) can enter the cavities intentionally for medical purposes, or unintentionally following environmental exposure; subsequent serosal inflammation and cancer (mesothelioma) has gained significant interest. However, reports on adverse effects of NM on ILCs and other components of the serosal immune system are scarce or even lacking. As ILCs are crucial in the first defense against pathogenic viruses and bacteria, it is possible that serosal exposure to NM may lead to a reduced resistance against pathogens. Additionally, affected serosal lymphoid tissues and cells may disturb adipose tissue homeostasis. This review aims to provide insight into key effects of NM on the serosal immune system.

The hepatotoxic fluoroquinolone trovafloxacin disturbs TNF- and LPS-induced p65 nuclear translocation in vivo and in vitro.

Idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (IDILI) is a severe disease that cannot be detected during drug development. It has been shown that hepatotoxicity of some compounds associated with IDILI becomes apparent when these are combined in vivo and in vitro with LPS or TNF. Among these compounds trovafloxacin (TVX) induced apoptosis in the liver and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in mice exposed to LPS/TNF. The hepatocyte survival and the cytokine release after TNF/LPS stimulation relies on a pulsatile activation of NF-κB. We set out to evaluate the dynamic activation of NF-κB in response to TVX + TNF or LPS models, both in mouse and human cells. Remarkably, TVX prolonged the first translocation of NF-κB induced by TNF both in vivo and in vitro. The prolonged p65 translocation caused by TVX was associated with an increased phosphorylation of IKK and MAPKs and accumulation of inhibitors of NF-κB such as IκBα and A20 in HepG2. Coherently, TVX suppressed further TNF-induced NF-κB translocations in HepG2 leading to decreased transcription of ICAM-1 and inhibitors of apoptosis. TVX prolonged LPS-induced NF-κB translocation in RAW264.7 macrophages increasing the secretion of TNF. In summary, this study presents new, relevant insights into the mechanism of TVX-induced liver injury underlining the resemblance between mouse and human models. In this study we convincingly show that regularly used toxicity models provide a coherent view of relevant pathways for IDILI. We propose that assessment of the kinetics of activation of NF-κB and MAPKs is an appropriate tool for the identification of hepatotoxic compounds during drug development.

A network-based approach for identifying suitable biomarkers for oral immunotherapy of food allergy.

BACKGROUND: Oral immunotherapy (OIT) is a promising therapeutic approach to treat food allergic patients. However, concerns with regards to safety and long-term efficacy of OIT remain. There is a need to identify biomarkers that predict, monitor and/or evaluate the effects of OIT. Here we present a method to select candidate biomarkers for efficacy and safety assessment of OIT using the computational approaches Bayesian networks (BN) and Topological Data Analysis (TDA). RESULTS: Data were used from fructo-oligosaccharide diet-supported OIT experiments performed in 3 independent cow's milk allergy (CMA) and 2 independent peanut allergy (PNA) experiments in mice. Bioinformatical approaches were used to understand the data structure. The BN predicted the efficacy of OIT in the CMA with 86% and indicated a clear effect of scFOS/lcFOS on allergy parameters. For the PNA model, this BN (trained on CMA data) predicted an efficacy of OIT with 76% accuracy and shows similar effects of the allergen, treatment and diet as compared to the CMA model. The TDA identified clusters of biomarkers closely linked to biologically relevant clinical symptoms and also unrelated and redundant parameters within the network. CONCLUSIONS: Here we provide a promising application of computational approaches to a) compare mechanistic features of two different food allergies during OIT b) determine the biological relevance of candidate biomarkers c) generate new hypotheses to explain why CMA has a different disease pattern than PNA and d) select relevant biomarkers for future studies.

Chemically modified peanut extract shows increased safety while maintaining immunogenicity.

BACKGROUND: Peanuts are most responsible for food-induced anaphylaxis in adults in developed countries. An effective and safe immunotherapy is urgently needed. The aim of this study was to investigate the immunogenicity, allergenicity, and immunotherapeutic efficacy of a well-characterized chemically modified peanut extract (MPE) adsorbed to Al(OH)3 . METHODS: Peanut extract (PE) was modified by reduction and alkylation. Using sera of peanut-allergic patients, competitive IgE-binding assays and mediator release assays were performed. The immunogenicity of MPE was evaluated by measuring activation of human PE-specific T-cell lines and the induction of PE-specific IgG in mice. The safety and efficacy of MPE adsorbed to Al(OH)3 was tested in two mouse models by measuring allergic manifestations upon peanut challenge in peanut-allergic mice. RESULTS: Compared to PE, the IgE-binding and capacity to induce allergic symptoms of MPE were lower in all patients. PE and MPE displayed similar immunogenicity in vivo and in vitro. In mice sensitized to PE, the threshold for anaphylaxis (drop in BT) upon subcutaneous challenge with PE was 0.01 mg, while at 0.3 mg MPE no allergic reaction occurred. Anaphylaxis was not observed when PE and MPE were fully adsorbed to Al(OH)3 . Both PE and MPE + Al(OH)3 showed to be efficacious in a model for immunotherapy. CONCLUSION: In our studies, an Al(OH)3 adsorbed MPE showed reduced allergenicity compared to unmodified PE, while the efficacy of immunotherapy is maintained. The preclinical data presented in this study supports further development of modified peanut allergens for IT.

Non-digestible oligosaccharides scFOS/lcFOS facilitate safe subcutaneous immunotherapy for peanut allergy.

BACKGROUND: Improving the safety of subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) for food allergy is necessary to reduce side effects and achieve long-term tolerance. We determined the effect of dietary supplementation with 1% non-digestible short- and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides (scFOS/lcFOS) on safety and efficacy of SCIT using a peanut allergy mouse model. METHODS: After sensitization, mice received a scFOS/lcFOS or control diet for the rest of the study. To study safety of SCIT, mice were dosed with a single subcutaneous injection of peanut extract (PE) or PBS. To study efficacy, mice were dosed subcutaneously (SCIT, 3 times/week) with PE or PBS for 3 weeks. Hereafter, acute allergic skin responses, anaphylactic shock symptoms and body temperature were assessed. To study the mechanism in vitro, the human IgE receptor (FcεRI)-transfected rat mast cell (RBL) line was sensitized with an oligoclonal pool of chimeric human (chu)IgE antibodies against bovine ß-lactoglobulin (BLG) and incubated with the oligosaccharides before exposure to BLG to assess direct the effect on degranulation. RESULTS: scFOS/lcFOS reduced anaphylaxis caused by a single PE SCIT dose. scFOS/lcFOS alone also reduced the acute allergic skin response. Moreover, scFOS/lcFOS supplementation resulted in lower MMCP-1 levels in serum after PE SCIT dose compared to control diet, while antibody levels were not affected by the diet. In vitro incubation with scFOS/lcFOS at 0.5% suppressed the degranulation of IgE-sensitized RBL cells. However, dietary supplementation with scFOS/lcFOS did not improve the efficacy of SCIT. CONCLUSIONS: We show that scFOS/lcFOS diet improves the safety of SCIT, as evidenced by lower anaphylactic responses without compromising the efficacy in a mouse model for peanut allergy. This effect is likely to result from the suppression of mast cell effector function.

Butyrate Enhances Desensitization Induced by Oral Immunotherapy in Cow's Milk Allergic Mice.

BACKGROUND: In previous studies, we showed that a fructo-oligosaccharide- (FOS-) supplemented diet enhanced oral immunotherapy (OIT) efficacy in a mouse model for cow's milk allergy. Fermentation of FOS by intestinal bacteria leads to production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) including butyrate. AIM: To investigate the contribution of butyrate in the enhanced efficacy of OIT + FOS. METHODS: C3H/HeOuJ mice were sensitized and received OIT with or without FOS or butyrate supplementation. After treatment, whole blood was collected to conduct a basophil activation test (BAT) and allergen challenges were performed to measure acute allergic symptoms. CD4 + CD25 + regulatory T cells (Tregs) were isolated from treated mice or differentiated in vitro and used in a bone marrow-derived mast cell (BMMC) suppression assay. Cecum content was collected to analyze SCFA concentrations. RESULTS: Allergen-induced basophil activation was reduced in OIT + butyrate samples compared to OIT. Accordingly, the acute allergic skin response and mast cell degranulation upon challenge were reduced in OIT + butyrate and OIT + FOS mice compared to sensitized controls. Butyrate was increased in the cecum content of OIT + FOS mice compared to OIT mice and sensitized controls. Treg-mediated BMMC suppression was enhanced after in vivo butyrate and FOS exposure in combination with OIT but with a more pronounced effect for butyrate. CONCLUSION: Butyrate supplementation enhanced OIT-induced desensitization of basophils and mast cells and Treg functionality. Only OIT + FOS treatment induced potential microbial alterations, shown by increased butyrate levels in cecum content. Both butyrate and FOS are promising candidates to improve OIT efficacy in human studies to treat food allergies.

Regional Expression Levels of Drug Transporters and Metabolizing Enzymes along the Pig and Human Intestinal Tract and Comparison with Caco-2 Cells.

Intestinal transporter proteins and metabolizing enzymes play a crucial role in the oral absorption of a wide variety of drugs. The aim of the current study was to characterize better available intestinal in vitro models by comparing expression levels of these proteins and enzymes between porcine intestine, human intestine, and Caco-2 cells. We therefore determined the absolute protein expression of 19 drug transporters and the mRNA expression of 12 metabolic enzymes along the pig intestinal tract (duodenum, jejunum, ileum; N = 4), in human intestine (jejunum; N = 9), and Caco-2 cells. Expression of the included transporters and enzymes was in general well comparable between porcine and human intestinal tissue, although breast cancer resistance protein, monocarboxylate transporter 5, multidrug resistance protein (MRP) 1, MRP1, MRP3 (∼2-fold), and organic anion-transporting polypeptide (OATP) 4A1 (∼6-fold) was higher expressed in pig compared with human jejunum. Alternatively, expression level of relevant transporter proteins (glucose transporter 1, OATP4A1, MRP2, MRP1, and OATP2B1) was significantly higher (3- to 130-fold) in Caco-2 cells compared with human jejunum. Moreover, all examined CYPs showed at least a fivefold lower gene expression in Caco-2 cells compared with human jejunum, with the smallest differences for CYP1A1 and CYP3A5 and the largest difference for CYP3A4 (871-fold higher expression in human jejunum compared with Caco-2 cells). In conclusion, a comprehensive overview is provided of the expression levels of clinically relevant transporter proteins and metabolic enzymes in porcine and human intestinal tissue and Caco-2 cells, which may assist in deciding upon the most suitable model to further improve our understanding of processes that determine intestinal absorption of compounds.

Adaptation of exercise-induced stress in well-trained healthy young men.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Exercise is known to induce stress-related physiological responses, such as changes in intestinal barrier function. Our aim was to determine the test-retest repeatability of these responses in well-trained individuals. What is the main finding and its importance? Responses to strenuous exercise, as indicated by stress-related markers such as intestinal integrity markers and myokines, showed high test-retest variation. Even in well-trained young men an adapted response is seen after a single repetition after 1 week. This finding has implications for the design of studies aimed at evaluating physiological responses to exercise. Strenuous exercise induces different stress-related physiological changes, potentially including changes in intestinal barrier function. In the Protégé Study (ISRCTN14236739; www.isrctn.com), we determined the test-retest repeatability in responses to exercise in well-trained individuals. Eleven well-trained men (27 ± 4 years old) completed an exercise protocol that consisted of intensive cycling intervals, followed by an overnight fast and an additional 90 min cycling phase at 50% of maximal workload the next morning. The day before (rest), and immediately after the exercise protocol (exercise) a lactulose and rhamnose solution was ingested. Markers of energy metabolism, lactulose-to-rhamnose ratio, several cytokines and potential stress-related markers were measured at rest and during exercise. In addition, untargeted urine metabolite profiles were obtained. The complete procedure (Test) was repeated 1 week later (Retest) to assess repeatability. Metabolic effect parameters with regard to energy metabolism and urine metabolomics were similar for both the Test and Retest period, underlining comparable exercise load. Following exercise, intestinal permeability (1 h plasma lactulose-to-rhamnose ratio) and the serum interleukin-6, interleukin-10, fibroblast growth factor-21 and muscle creatine kinase concentrations were significantly increased compared with rest only during the first test and not when the test was repeated. Responses to strenuous exercise in well-trained young men, as indicated by intestinal markers and myokines, show adaptation in Test-Retest outcome. This might be attributable to a carry-over effect of the defense mechanisms triggered during the Test. This finding has implications for the design of studies aimed at evaluating physiological responses to exercise.

Air pollution exposure affects circulating white blood cell counts in healthy subjects: the role of particle composition, oxidative potential and gaseous pollutants - the RAPTES project.

Studies have linked air pollution exposure to cardiovascular health effects, but it is not clear which components drive these effects. We examined the associations between air pollution exposure and circulating white blood cell (WBC) counts in humans. To investigate independent contributions of particulate matter (PM) characteristics, we exposed 31 healthy volunteers at five locations with high contrast and reduced correlations amongst pollutant components: two traffic sites, an underground train station, a farm and an urban background site. Each volunteer visited at least three sites and was exposed for 5 h with intermittent exercise. Exposure measurements on-site included PM mass and number concentration, oxidative potential (OP), elemental- and organic carbon, metals, O3 and NO2. Total and differential WBC counts were performed on blood collected before and 2 and 18 h post-exposure (PE). Changes in total WBC counts (2 and 18 h PE), number of neutrophils (2 h PE) and monocytes (18 h PE) were positively associated with PM characteristics that were high at the underground site. These time-dependent changes reflect an inflammatory response, but the characteristic driving this effect could not be isolated. Negative associations were observed for NO2 with lymphocytes and eosinophils. These associations were robust and did not change after adjustment for a large suite of PM characteristics, suggesting an independent effect of NO2. We conclude that short-term air pollution exposure at real-world locations can induce changes in WBC counts in healthy subjects. Future studies should indicate if air pollution exposure-induced changes in blood cell counts results in adverse cardiovascular effects in susceptible individuals.

New approach methodologies to enhance human health risk assessment of immunotoxic properties of chemicals - a PARC (Partnership for the Assessment of Risk from Chemicals) project.

As a complex system governing and interconnecting numerous functions within the human body, the immune system is unsurprisingly susceptible to the impact of toxic chemicals. Toxicants can influence the immune system through a multitude of mechanisms, resulting in immunosuppression, hypersensitivity, increased risk of autoimmune diseases and cancer development. At present, the regulatory assessment of the immunotoxicity of chemicals relies heavily on rodent models and a limited number of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guidelines, which only capture a fraction of potential toxic properties. Due to this limitation, various authorities, including the World Health Organization and the European Food Safety Authority have highlighted the need for the development of novel approaches without the use of animals for immunotoxicity testing of chemicals. In this paper, we present a concise overview of ongoing efforts dedicated to developing and standardizing methodologies for a comprehensive characterization of the immunotoxic effects of chemicals, which are performed under the EU-funded Partnership for the Assessment of Risk from Chemicals (PARC).

Acute nasal pro-inflammatory response to air pollution depends on characteristics other than particle mass concentration or oxidative potential: the RAPTES project.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate which air pollution characteristics are associated with biomarkers for acute nasal airway inflammation in healthy subjects. We hypothesised that associations would be strongest for oxidative potential (OP) of particles. METHODS: 31 volunteers were exposed to ambient air pollution at five sites in The Netherlands: two traffic sites, an underground train station, a farm and an urban background site. Each subject visited at least three sites between March and October 2009 and was exposed for 5 h per visit including exercise for 20 min every hour (h). Air pollution measurements during this 5-h-period included particulate matter (PM) mass concentration, elemental composition, elemental and organic carbon (OC), particle number concentration, OP, endotoxins, O3 and NO2. Pro-inflammatory biomarkers were measured before, 2 and 18 h postexposure, including cytokine IL-6 and IL-8, protein and lactoferrin in nasal lavage (NAL) as well as IL-6 in blood. One- and two-pollutant mixed models were used to analyse associations between exposure and changes in biomarkers. RESULTS: In two-pollutant models, cytokines in NAL were positively associated with OC, endotoxin and NO2; protein was associated with NO2; and lactoferrin was associated with all PM characteristics that were high at the underground site. In blood, associations with OC and endotoxin were negative. CONCLUSIONS: We observed no consistent effects in two-pollutant models for PM mass concentration and OP. Instead, we found consistent associations with nasal inflammatory markers for other PM characteristics, specifically OC, endotoxin and NO2.

Chicken-derived RSPO1 and WNT3 contribute to maintaining longevity of chicken intestinal organoid cultures.

Intestinal organoids are advanced cellular models, which are widely used in mammalian studies to mimic and study in vivo intestinal function and host-pathogen interactions. Growth factors WNT3 and RSPO1 are crucial for the growth of intestinal organoids. Chicken intestinal organoids are currently cultured with mammalian Wnt3a and Rspo1, however, maintaining their longevity has shown to be challenging. Based on the limited homology between mammalian and avian RSPO1, we expect that chicken-derived factors are required for the organoid cultures. Isolated crypts from embryonic tissue of laying hens were growing in the presence of chicken WNT3 and RSPO1, whereas growth in the presence of mammalian Wnt3a and Rspo1 was limited. Moreover, the growth was increased by using Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and a Forkhead box O1-inhibitor (FOXO1-inhibitor), allowing to culture these organoids for 15 passages. Furthermore, stem cells maintained their ability to differentiate into goblets, enterocytes and enteroendocrine cells in 2D structures. Overall, we show that chicken intestinal organoids can be cultured for multiple passages using chicken-derived WNT3 and RSPO1, PGE2, and FOXO1-inhibitor.

Natural language processing in toxicology: Delineating adverse outcome pathways and guiding the application of new approach methodologies.

Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) are conceptual frameworks that tie an initial perturbation (molecular initiating event) to a phenotypic toxicological manifestation (adverse outcome), through a series of steps (key events). They provide therefore a standardized way to map and organize toxicological mechanistic information. As such, AOPs inform on key events underlying toxicity, thus supporting the development of New Approach Methodologies (NAMs), which aim to reduce the use of animal testing for toxicology purposes. However, the establishment of a novel AOP relies on the gathering of multiple streams of evidence and information, from available literature to knowledge databases. Often, this information is in the form of free text, also called unstructured text, which is not immediately digestible by a computer. This information is thus both tedious and increasingly time-consuming to process manually with the growing volume of data available. The advancement of machine learning provides alternative solutions to this challenge. To extract and organize information from relevant sources, it seems valuable to employ deep learning Natural Language Processing techniques. We review here some of the recent progress in the NLP field, and show how these techniques have already demonstrated value in the biomedical and toxicology areas. We also propose an approach to efficiently and reliably extract and combine relevant toxicological information from text. This data can be used to map underlying mechanisms that lead to toxicological effects and start building quantitative models, in particular AOPs, ultimately allowing animal-free human-based hazard and risk assessment.

Environmentally weathered polystyrene particles induce phenotypical and functional maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNP) are ubiquitously present in the environment due to their high persistence and bioaccumulative properties. Humans get exposed to MNP via various routes and consequently, they will encounter dendritic cells (DC) which are antigen-presenting cells involved in regulating immune responses. The consequences of DC exposure to MNP are an important, yet understudied, cause of concern. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the uptake and effect of MNP in vitro by exposing human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDC) to virgin and environmentally weathered polystyrene (PS) particles of different sizes (0.2, 1, and 10 µm), at different concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 µg/ml. The effects of these particles were examined by measuring co-stimulatory surface marker (i.e. CD83 and CD86) expression. In addition, T-cell proliferation was measured via a mixed-leukocyte reaction (MLR) assay. The results showed that MoDC were capable of absorbing PS particles, and this was facilitated by pre-incubation in heat-inactivated (HI) plasma. Furthermore, depending on their size, weathered PS particles in particular caused increased expression of CD83 and CD86 on MoDC. Lastly, weathered 0.2 µm PS particles were able to functionally activate MoDC, leading to an increase in T-cell activation. These in vitro data suggest that, depending on their size, weathered PS particles might act as an immunostimulating adjuvant, possibly leading to T-cell sensitization.

In vitro toxicity of particulate matter (PM) collected at different sites in the Netherlands is associated with PM composition, size fraction and oxidative potential--the RAPTES project.

BACKGROUND: Ambient particulate matter (PM) exposure is associated with respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. To what extent such effects are different for PM obtained from different sources or locations is still unclear. This study investigated the in vitro toxicity of ambient PM collected at different sites in the Netherlands in relation to PM composition and oxidative potential. METHOD: PM was sampled at eight sites: three traffic sites, an underground train station, as well as a harbor, farm, steelworks, and urban background location. Coarse (2.5-10 µm), fine (< 2.5 µm) and quasi ultrafine PM (qUF; < 0.18 µm) were sampled at each site. Murine macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells) were exposed to increasing concentrations of PM from these sites (6.25-12.5-25-50-100 µg/ml; corresponding to 3.68-58.8 µg/cm2). Following overnight incubation, MTT-reduction activity (a measure of metabolic activity) and the release of pro-inflammatory markers (Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, TNF-α; Interleukin-6, IL-6; Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-2, MIP-2) were measured. The oxidative potential and the endotoxin content of each PM sample were determined in a DTT- and LAL-assay respectively. Multiple linear regression was used to assess the relationship between the cellular responses and PM characteristics: concentration, site, size fraction, oxidative potential and endotoxin content. RESULTS: Most PM samples induced a concentration-dependent decrease in MTT-reduction activity and an increase in pro-inflammatory markers with the exception of the urban background and stop & go traffic samples. Fine and qUF samples of traffic locations, characterized by a high concentration of elemental and organic carbon, induced the highest pro-inflammatory activity. The pro-inflammatory response to coarse samples was associated with the endotoxin level, which was found to increase dramatically during a three-day sample concentration procedure in the laboratory. The underground samples, characterized by a high content of transition metals, showed the largest decrease in MTT-reduction activity. PM size fraction was not related to MTT-reduction activity, whereas there was a statistically significant difference in pro-inflammatory activity between Fine and qUF PM. Furthermore, there was a statistically significant negative association between PM oxidative potential and MTT-reduction activity. CONCLUSION: The response of RAW264.7 cells to ambient PM was markedly different using samples collected at various sites in the Netherlands that differed in their local PM emission sources. Our results are in support of other investigations showing that the chemical composition as well as oxidative potential are determinants of PM induced toxicity in vitro.

Deamidation and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Gliadins Alter Their Processing by Dendritic Cells in Vitro.

Gliadins are major wheat allergens. Their treatment by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis has been shown to modify their allergenic potential. As the interaction of food proteins with dendritic cells (DCs) is a key event in allergic sensitization, we wished to investigate whether deamidation and enzymatic hydrolysis influence gliadin processing by DC and to examine the capacity of gliadins to activate DCs. We compared the uptake and degradation of native and modified gliadins by DCs using mouse bone marrow-derived DCs. We also analyzed the effects of these interactions on the phenotypes of DCs and T helper (Th) lymphocytes. Modifying gliadins induced a change in physicochemical properties (molecular weight, hydrophobicity, and sequence) and also in the peptide size. These alterations in turn led to increased uptake and intracellular degradation of the proteins by DCs. Native gliadins (NGs) (100 µg/mL), but not modified gliadins, increased the frequency of DC expressing CD80 (15.41 ± 2.36% vs 6.81 ± 1.10%, p < 0.001), CCR7 (28.53 ± 8.17% vs 17.88 ± 2.53%, p < 0.001), CXCR4 (70.14 ± 4.63% vs 42.82 ± 1.96%, p < 0.001), and CCR7-dependent migration (2.46 ± 1.45 vs 1.00 ± 0.22, p < 0.01) compared with NGs. This was accompanied by Th lymphocyte activation (30.37 ± 3.87% vs 21.53 ± 3.14%, p < 0.1) and proliferation (16.39 ± 3.97% vs 9.31 ± 2.80%, p > 0.1). Moreover, hydrolysis decreases the peptide size and induces an increase in gliadin uptake and degradation. Deamidation and extensive enzymatic hydrolysis of gliadins modify their interaction with DCs, leading to alteration of their immunostimulatory capacity. These findings demonstrate the strong relationship between the biochemical characteristics of proteins and immune cell interactions.

Managing the challenge of drug-induced liver injury: a roadmap for the development and deployment of preclinical predictive models.

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a patient-specific, temporal, multifactorial pathophysiological process that cannot yet be recapitulated in a single in vitro model. Current preclinical testing regimes for the detection of human DILI thus remain inadequate. A systematic and concerted research effort is required to address the deficiencies in current models and to present a defined approach towards the development of new or adapted model systems for DILI prediction. This Perspective defines the current status of available models and the mechanistic understanding of DILI, and proposes our vision of a roadmap for the development of predictive preclinical models of human DILI.

Mouse strain differences in response to oral immunotherapy for peanut allergy.

BACKGROUND: Promising therapies for food allergy are emerging, mostly based on animal experimentation. However, different mouse strains are used, which may make it hard to compare experiments. The current study investigated whether the immunological differences between C3H/HeOuJ (C3H) and BALB/c mice lead to differences in efficacy of peanut-specific immunotherapy. METHODS: After sensitization using peanut extract (PE), C3H and BALB/c mice received oral immunotherapy (OIT) by intragastric dosing for three weeks. Hereafter, mice were exposed to PE via the intradermal, intragastric and intraperitoneal route, to determine allergic outcomes. Furthermore, PE-specific antibody and cytokine production were determined and the number of various immune cells at different time points during the study were measured. RESULTS: OIT protected C3H mice against anaphylaxis, whereas no anaphylaxis was seen in BALB/c mice. In contrast, OIT induced an increase in MMCP-1 levels in BALB/c mice but not in C3H mice. No effect of OIT on the acute allergic skin response was observed in either strain. Specific antibody responses showed similar patterns in both strains for IgA and IgG1. IgE levels were a tenfold higher in BALB/c mice and after the intragastric challenge (day 70) OIT-treated BALB/c mice showed induced IgE levels. Moreover, in C3H mice IgG2a levels were higher and increased in response to OIT and challenges. After the final challenge, but not at other timepoints MLN-derived lymphocytes from OIT-treated BALB/c mice produced less IL-13 and IL-5 compared to control-treated mice, whereas no differences were seen in case of C3H mice. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results show that the C3H strain is more suitable to study clinical outcomes of OIT, whereas the BALB/c strain is more optimal to study T cell responses.