The Relationship Between State-Level Earned Income Tax Credits and Violent Crime.

Policies that provide economic support, such as the earned income tax credit (EITC), improve peoples' ability to meet their basic needs and reduce stress, which can reduce violence perpetration. Refundable state-level EITCs have been associated with decreases in multiple forms of violence (e.g., child abuse and neglect); however, it is unknown whether there is an association between the EITC and violent crime as captured by Uniform Crime Reports. Crime and violence remain a pressing concern for many communities across the nation. Using a longitudinal data set, we conducted fixed-effects regression models with year and state specified as fixed effects, to determine whether variations in generosity of state-level EITCs are related to the rate of violent crime. After adjusting for demographic covariates, refundable state-level EITCs remained significantly associated with reductions in criminal homicide compared to states without an EITC. As many states attempt to combat crime and prevent violence in their communities, anti-poverty measures such as the EITC provide a promising strategy for reducing the social and economic costs associated with violence.

The moment is now: Strengthening communities and families for the future of our nation.

COVID-19 has highlighted the historical lack of investment in the conditions that children need to thrive, and demonstrates how a crisis can exacerbate children's vulnerability to disease and violence. Exposure to early adversity already affects millions of children across the country and puts them at risk for poor outcomes. With the uncertainty of the pandemic, many more families are struggling and subsequently, more children are at risk for exposure to adversity. Preventing early adversity and promoting the prosperity of our nation requires assuring that all children, regardless of sociodemographic characteristics, have what they need to reach their full health and life potential. Now is the time to address the social and structural conditions that contribute to the inequitable distribution of risk for some families and which contribute to their unequal burden and impacts of adversity, COVID-19, racial injustice, and other health crises. While many look forward to "a return to normal," returning to normal would be a missed opportunity to learn from our mistakes and ensure a bright future for our nation. We must invest in children and families for the future health of Americans.

Association of Child Maltreatment and Deployment-related Traumatic Experiences with Mental Disorders in Active Duty Service Members and Veterans of the Canadian Armed Forces: Association de la Maltraitance des Enfants et des Expériences Traumatisantes Liées au Déploiement Avec les Troubles Mentaux Chez les Membres du Service Actif et Les Anciens Combattants des Forces Armées Canadiennes.

OBJECTIVE: Mental health among military personnel is an important public health priority. It is known that military personnel experience a high prevalence of child maltreatment and deployment-related traumatic events (DRTEs) and both are related to mental health outcomes. However, few, if any, studies have examined the cumulative and interactive effects of child maltreatment and DRTEs on mental health disorders in a sample of active duty service members and military veterans. METHODS: Data were from the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) Members and Veterans Mental Health Follow-up Survey collected in 2018 (N = 2,941, response rate = 68.7%), a 16-year follow-up survey of CAF Regular Force members interviewed in 2002. Five types of child maltreatment and 10 types of DTREs were assessed for impact on mental health. Mental disorders included past 12-month generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, social phobia, and major depressive episode (MDE). Past 12-month symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were also examined. RESULTS: The prevalence of any exposure to child maltreatment and DRTEs was 62.5% and 68.6%, respectively. All types of child maltreatment were associated with increased odds of past 12-month PTSD symptoms and mental disorders with the exception of physical abuse and GAD as well as childhood exposure to intimate partner violence and panic disorder. Cumulative effects of having experienced both child maltreatment and DRTEs increased the odds of past 12-month PTSD symptoms, GAD, social phobia, and MDE. No interaction effects were significant. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of a child maltreatment history is high among active Canadian military and veterans. As well, child maltreatment may increase the likelihood of mental disorders across the life span. This may be especially true for individuals who also experience DRTEs. Understanding these relationships may provide insight into developing effective interventions for military personnel and veteran mental health outcomes.

Breaking the cycle of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): Economic position moderates the relationship between mother and child ACE scores among Black and Hispanic families.

IMPORTANCE: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are prevalent, preventable, and a public health issue that cycles from one generation to the next with serious implications for health and wellbeing, particularly. Research is needed to identify factors, including those related to economic position (i.e., wage, net family wealth, home ownership), that break the cycle of ACEs and inform decisions about policies, practices, and programs. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether economic position moderates the association between mother's ACE score and child's ACE score and whether these pathways differ by race and ethnicity. DESIGN: Conducted regression and moderation analysis using mother-child dyadic data from panel surveys, stratified by race. The simple slopes for the interactions were probed to determine the magnitude and significance of the interaction. SETTING: Secondary data analysis utilizing data from two cohorts of the National Longitudinal Surveys: 1) National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979; and 2) National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Children and Young Adults. PARTICIPANTS: The sample included 6,261 children and 2,967 matched mothers. MAIN OUTCOMES S AND MEASURES: The outcome variable was the child's ACE score. Mother's ACE score was the independent variable. Three economic position moderators were examined: mother's and her spouse's average wage and salary, average net family wealth, and percent of time owning a home during her child's first five years of life. RESULTS: Mother's ACE score was positively associated with her child's ACE score. Economic position was a significant moderator for Black families. Higher wages and net family wealth during children's first five years were associated with weakened associations between mother and child ACEs for Black families. For Hispanic families, higher wages and salary were significantly associated with weakened associations. Among White families, higher net family wealth was associated with stronger ACEs transmission. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Taken together, these findings highlight the important role that economic position may play on breaking the cycle of ACEs. This information can inform decisions about what public assistance policies, practices, and programs may be used to improve economic stability among families as an effective ACEs prevention strategy, and for whom these strategies might be most effective at reducing the cycle of ACEs.

Impact of Medicaid expansion and methadone coverage as a medication for opioid use disorder on foster care entries during the opioid crisis.

Between 2012 and 2018, incidents of opioid-involved injuries surged and the number of children in foster care due to parental drug use disorder increased. Treatments for opioid use disorder (OUD) might prevent or reduce the amount of time that children spend in the child welfare system. Using administrative data, we examined the impact of Medicaid expansion and state support for methadone as a medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD) on first-time foster care placements. Results show that first-time foster care entries due to parental drug use disorder experienced a reduction of 28 per 100,000 children in Medicaid expansion states with methadone MOUD covered by their state Medicaid programs. The largest reduction was found among non-Hispanic Black children and the youngest children (age 0-1 years). Policies that increase OUD treatment access may reduce foster care placements by reducing parents' drug use, a risk factor for child abuse/neglect and subsequent home removal.

Adverse childhood experiences, internalizing/externalizing symptoms, and associated prescription opioid misuse: A mediation analysis.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with mental health and substance use problems, but lesser known is how they interconnect. The objective of this study was to examine how internalizing and externalizing symptoms mediate the association of ACEs with prescription opioid misuse in order to understand how ACEs interconnect with mental health and substance use problems. Adults aged 18 or older from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions Wave 3 (NESARC-III) conducted in 2012-2013 were included (N = 36,309). The prescription opioid misuse outcomes examined include prescription opioid misuse status, early-onset status of prescription opioid misuse, frequency of past-year prescription opioid misuse, and opioid use disorder. A natural effect model and regression analyses were used to conduct the mediation analyses. We found that respondents with higher ACE scores had greater odds of reporting past-year and lifetime prescription opioid misuse and DSM-V-diagnosed opioid use disorder as well as early onset of prescription opioid misuse (AORs range from 1.06 to 1.12). These associations are partially mediated by internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The findings suggest that internalizing and externalizing symptoms may be potential pathways through which ACEs are associated with prescription opioid misuse. Our results underscore the importance of preventing ACEs and reducing risk for internalizing and externalizing symptoms after exposure, which may reduce later prescription opioid misuse.

Vital Signs: Estimated Proportion of Adult Health Problems Attributable to Adverse Childhood Experiences and Implications for Prevention - 25 States, 2015-2017.

INTRODUCTION: Adverse childhood experiences, such as violence victimization, substance misuse in the household, or witnessing intimate partner violence, have been linked to leading causes of adult morbidity and mortality. Therefore, reducing adverse childhood experiences is critical to avoiding multiple negative health and socioeconomic outcomes in adulthood. METHODS: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data were collected from 25 states that included state-added adverse childhood experience items during 2015-2017. Outcomes were self-reported status for coronary heart disease, stroke, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancer (excluding skin cancer), kidney disease, diabetes, depression, overweight or obesity, current smoking, heavy drinking, less than high school completion, unemployment, and lack of health insurance. Logistic regression modeling adjusting for age group, race/ethnicity, and sex was used to calculate population attributable fractions representing the potential reduction in outcomes associated with preventing adverse childhood experiences. RESULTS: Nearly one in six adults in the study population (15.6%) reported four or more types of adverse childhood experiences. Adverse childhood experiences were significantly associated with poorer health outcomes, health risk behaviors, and socioeconomic challenges. Potential percentage reductions in the number of observed cases as indicated by population attributable fractions ranged from 1.7% for overweight or obesity to 23.9% for heavy drinking, 27.0% for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and 44.1% for depression. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE: Efforts that prevent adverse childhood experiences could also potentially prevent adult chronic conditions, depression, health risk behaviors, and negative socioeconomic outcomes. States can use comprehensive public health approaches derived from the best available evidence to prevent childhood adversity before it begins. By creating the conditions for healthy communities and focusing on primary prevention, it is possible to reduce risk for adverse childhood experiences while also mitigating consequences for those already affected by these experiences.

Associations between adverse childhood experiences and acquired brain injury, including traumatic brain injuries, among adults: 2014 BRFSS North Carolina.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can negatively affect lifelong health and opportunity. Acquired brain injury (ABI), which includes traumatic brain injury (TBI) as well as other causes of brain injury, is a health condition that affects millions annually. The present study uses data from the 2014 North Carolina Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System to examine the relationship between ACEs and ABI. The study sample included 3454 participants who completed questions on both ABI and ACEs. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to determine the relationship between ACEs and ABI as well as ACEs and TBI. Sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical abuse, household mental illness and household substance abuse were significantly associated with ABI after adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, gender and employment. Compared with those reporting no ACEs, individuals reporting three ACEs had 2.55 times the odds of having experienced an ABI; individuals reporting four or more ACEs had 3.51 times the odds of having experienced an ABI. Examining TBI separately, those who experienced sexual abuse, physical abuse, household mental illness and had incarcerated household members in childhood had greater odds of reported TBI, after adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, gender and income. Respondents reporting three ACEs (AOR=4.16, 95% CI (1.47 to 11.76)) and four or more ACEs (AOR=3.39, 95% CI (1.45 to 7.90)) had significantly greater odds of reporting TBI than respondents with zero ACEs. Prevention of early adversity may reduce the incidence of ABI; however, additional research is required to elucidate the potential pathways from ACEs to ABI, and vice versa.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and the Presence of Cancer Risk Factors in Adulthood: A Scoping Review of the Literature From 2005 to 2015.

Exposure to Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) is associated with a host of harmful outcomes, including increased risk for cancer. A scoping review was conducted to gain a better understanding of how ACEs have been studied in association with risk factors for cancer. This review includes 155 quantitative, peer-reviewed articles published between 2005 and 2015 that examined associations between ACEs and modifiable cancer risk factors, including alcohol, environmental carcinogens, chronic inflammation, sex hormones, immunosuppression, infectious agents, obesity, radiation, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and tobacco, among U.S. adults. This review highlights the growing body of research connecting ACEs to cancer risk factors, particularly alcohol, obesity, and tobacco. Fewer studies investigated the links between ACEs and chronic inflammation or infectious agents. No included publications investigated associations between ACEs and environmental carcinogens, hormones, immunosuppression, radiation, or ultraviolet radiation. Mitigating the impact of ACEs may provide innovative ways to effect comprehensive, upstream cancer prevention.

Understanding the Buffering Effects of Protective Factors on the Relationship between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Teen Dating Violence Perpetration.

Prior research has demonstrated the scope and impact of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) on health and wellbeing. Less is known about the trajectories from exposure to ACEs, such as witnessing family conflict and violence in the community, to teen dating violence perpetration, and the protective factors that buffer the association between early exposure to ACEs and later teen dating violence perpetration. Students (n = 1611) completed self-report surveys six times during middle and high school from 2008 to 2013. In early middle school, the sub-sample was 50.2% female and racially/ethnically diverse: 47.7% Black, 36.4% White, 3.4% Hispanic, 1.7% Asian/Pacific Islander, and 10.8% other. Youth were, on average, 12.7 years old. Latent transition analysis was used to assess how trajectories of exposure to parental conflict and community violence during middle school transition into classes of teen dating violence perpetration (e.g., sexual, physical, threatening, relational, and verbal) in high school. Protective factors were then analyzed as moderators of the transition probabilities. Three class trajectories of ACEs during middle school were identified: decreasing family conflict and increasing community violence (n = 103; 6.4%), stable low family conflict and stable low community violence (n = 1027; 63.7%), stable high family conflict and stable high community violence (n = 481; 29.9%). A three class solution for teen dating violence perpetration in high school was found: high all teen dating violence class (n = 113; 7.0%), physical and verbal only teen dating violence class (n = 335; 20.8%), and low all teen dating violence class (n = 1163; 72.2%). Social support, empathy, school belonging and parental monitoring buffered some transitions from ACEs exposure trajectory classes to teen dating violence perpetration classes. Comprehensive prevention strategies that address multiple forms of violence while bolstering protective factors across the social ecology may buffer negative effects of exposure to violence in adolescence.

Correction to: Understanding the Buffering Effects of Protective Factors on the Relationship between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Teen Dating Violence Perpetration.

An amendment to this article has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the article.

Impact of the United States federal child tax credit on childhood injuries and behavior problems.

Children who grow up in poverty are at risk for various poor outcomes. Socioeconomic policies can shape the conditions in which families are raising children and may be effective at reducing financial strain and helping families obtain economic sufficiency, thereby reducing risk for poor health outcomes. This study used data from two surveys conducted in the US, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and the NLSY79 Young Adult survey to determine whether the U.S. Federal Child Tax Credit (CTC), a socioeconomic policy that provides tax relief to low- and middle-income families to offset the costs of raising children, is associated with child well-being, as indicated by whether the child had injuries requiring medical attention and behavioral problems. Fixed-effects models, accounting for year and state of residence, detected a lower likelihood of injuries requiring medical attention (OR = 0.58, 95% CI [0.40, 0.86]) and significantly fewer behavior problems (b = -2.07, 95% CI [-4.06, -0.08]) among children with mothers eligible to receive a CTC, but only when it was partially refundable (i.e., mothers could receive a tax refund for a portion of the CTC that exceeds their tax liability) for families making as little as $3000 a year. Tax credits like the CTC have the potential to alleviate financial strain among families, and consequently, may have impacts on injury and behavior problems.

Mothers' homeownership and children's economic success 20 years later among a sample of US citizens.

Familial economic hardship, an adverse childhood experience (ACE) that increases children's risk for exposure to additional ACEs, can derail optimal child development. A compelling area with potential for reducing economic hardship and promoting healthy child development is housing. In the US, the largest contributor to family wealth is homeownership, which may contribute to a family's ability to provide their children opportunities to do better than previous generations. The objective of the current study was to examine the influence of homeownership on children's economic outcomes in adulthood. This study used data from two surveys conducted in the US, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and the NLSY79 Young Adult survey, to examine the association between mothers' homeownership in 1994 and children's economic outcomes 20 years later. Adults whose mothers owned homes in 1994 were over 1.5 times more likely to own homes, attained higher education, and were moderately less likely to receive public assistance in 2014 compared to adults whose mothers did not own homes. This paper highlights the potential of homeownership to break the intergenerational continuity of poverty. Programs that help families purchase affordable housing hold promise in helping ensure children reach their full potential and improving economic outcomes in future generations.

Intergenerational Continuity in Adverse Childhood Experiences and Rural Community Environments.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the role of the community environment on intergenerational continuity in adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) among a rural White sample. METHODS: Parents in 12 counties in rural Iowa reported retrospectively on their own ACEs in 1989. We measured their child's ACEs retrospectively and prospectively across adolescence (n = 451 families). We measured structural and social process-related measures of community environment (i.e., community socioeconomic status, parents' perception of community services, perceived community social cohesion, and neighborhood alcohol vendor density) on multiple occasions during the child's adolescence. RESULTS: The 4 measures of community environment were all correlated with the child's ACEs, but only alcohol vendor density predicted ACEs after inclusion of covariates. Intergenerational continuity in ACEs was moderated by both social cohesion (b = -0.11; SE = 0.04) and alcohol vendor density (b = -0.11; SE = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Efforts to increase community social cohesion and manage alcohol vendor density may assist families in breaking the cycle of maltreatment across generations.

Learning to health yourself: a randomized, tailored self-regulation intervention among custodial employees.

This intervention sought to bring about a dietary behavior change among individuals who are vulnerable to negative health outcomes and behaviors. Using a randomized controlled trial, we examined the efficacy of a six-week Education + Self-Regulation intervention against an Education Only condition in reducing saturated fat intake among custodial workers (N = 54). Assessments were made at baseline, 4 weeks, 6 weeks and 6 months. The intervention group reported lower saturated fat intake and greater self-regulation than the Education Only control group throughout the intervention period and higher self-efficacy at week 6. Despite a fading of intervention effect at 6 months, Education + Self-Regulation participants continued to report lower saturated fat intake relative to their baseline. Supplementing health education with self-regulatory skills is an effective strategy for positive health behavior change. The authors provide recommendations for engaging non-clinical health psychologists in community-level chronic disease prevention and health promotion efforts.

The impact of the low-income housing tax credit on children's health and wellbeing in Georgia.

Housing instability is a risk factor for child abuse and neglect (CAN). Thus, policies that increase availability of affordable housing may reduce CAN rates. The Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) program is the largest affordable housing policy initiative in the country. This study used fixed-effects models to estimate the relationship between LIHTC units and county-level CAN reports in Georgia from 2005 to 2015, controlling for county demographic characteristics. One-way fixed-effects models (including only county fixed-effects) demonstrated significant negative associations between number of LIHTC units and substantiated cases of CAN and total reports of sexual abuse. In two-way fixed-effects models (including county and year fixed-effects), LIHTC units were not associated with any of the outcomes. The findings are subject to limitations, including voluntary provision of CAN data, suppressed data for counties with < 10 CAN cases, and no assessment of the quality of LIHTC neighborhood. LIHTC may be a promising prevention strategy, but more research is needed.

Adverse childhood experiences and life opportunities: Shifting the narrative.

Substantial research shows that early adversity, including child abuse and neglect, is associated with diminished health across the life course and across generations. Less well understood is the relationship between early adversity and adult socioeconomic status, including education, employment, and income. Collectively, these outcomes provide an indication of overall life opportunity. We analyzed data from 10 states and the District of Columbia that used the adverse childhood experiences (ACE) module in the 2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System to examine the association between ACEs and adult education, employment, and income. Compared to participants with no ACEs, those with higher ACE scores were more likely to report high school non-completion, unemployment, and living in a household below the federal poverty level. This evidence suggests that preventing early adversity may impact health and life opportunities that reverberate across generations. Current efforts to prevent early adversity might be more successful if they broaden public and professional understanding (i.e., the narrative) of the links between early adversity and poverty. We discuss our findings within the context of structural policies and processes that may further contribute to the intergenerational continuity of child abuse and neglect and poverty.

"I have human papillomavirus": An analysis of illness narratives from the Experience Project.

PURPOSE: Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted virus worldwide. Our purpose was to examine people's experiences with HPV using narratives posted on a website entitled, Experience Project. METHOD: We conducted a content analysis of 127 HPV narratives to identify stigma, emotion-focused and problem-focused coping, and misinformation. RESULTS: Negative self-image was the most commonly identified type of stigma. There were more instances of problem-focused than emotion-focused coping. Sources of confusion were mostly about HPV treatment and side effects/symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have implications for how nurses and other health professionals can care for individuals living with HPV. Based on these findings, it would be beneficial for clinics/providers to implement on-line forums where myths about HPV can be debunked and accurate information provided. Both patients and the public need to be better informed about HPV, in order to decrease the negative stigma that can create a mental burden for individuals with HPV.

Upward communication about cancer screening: adolescent daughter to mother.

Substantial breast and cervical cancer disparities exist in the United States, particularly among African American women with low socioeconomic status. There is considerable potential for discussions about cancer prevention between mothers and daughters. However, upward communication, from child to parent, remains a relatively novel research area, and it remains unclear how receptive mothers would be to messages from their daughter about cancer, a topic that may be considered culturally inappropriate for daughters to initiate. In this study, the authors simulated cancer message delivery to daughters and then conducted direct observation of daughters as they recalled and shared the message with their mother or female elder. The authors found that daughters were able to successfully recall and deliver a cancer appeal to their mother and mothers were generally receptive to this message. Not only did mothers listen to their daughters' appeals, but also daughters' knowledge of cancer was considerably improved by the opportunity to educate her female elder. Moreover, daughters' nonverbal communication suggested a surprisingly relaxed demeanor. The potential of young people to have an effect on the screening behavior of their female elders is very promising in terms of reducing cancer disparities.

Cervical cancer prevention in Malawi: a qualitative study of women's perspectives.

Researchers posit that cervical cancer knowledge is central to participation in prevention behaviors. However, of the many barriers to cervical cancer prevention in low- and middle-income countries, cervical cancer knowledge remains severely limited among communities at great risk for the disease. Malawi is one such country where the burden of cervical cancer is considerably high. Formative research targeting cervical cancer prevention is needed, particularly research that explores ways to deliver cervical cancer information efficiently and effectively to Malawian women. In this study, the authors aimed to garner Malawian women's understanding of cervical cancer and to shed light on preferences for health information delivery, including community health advocacy. Qualitative, in-depth interviews were conducted with 30 Malawian women and analyzed for recurring themes. In general, women had limited cervical cancer knowledge, which supported misperceptions about the disease, including factors pertaining to risk and prevention. Nonetheless, women reported that receiving cervical cancer information from trusted sources would help promote preventive behaviors. Women noted that they received most of their health information from hospital personnel, but distance was a barrier. Women also expressed interest in community health advocacy. Perspectives from Malawian women may be vital toward informing efforts to increase cervical cancer knowledge and prevention.