Unemployment, homelessness, and other societal outcomes in patients with schizophrenia: a real-world retrospective cohort study of the United States Veterans Health Administration database : Societal burden of schizophrenia among US veterans.

BACKGROUND: The burden associated with schizophrenia is substantial. Impacts on the individual, healthcare system, and society may be particularly striking within the veteran population due to the presence of physical and mental health comorbidities. Disease burden is also influenced by a complex interplay between social determinants of health and health disparities. The objective of the current study was to compare non-healthcare societal outcomes between veterans with and without schizophrenia in the United States Veterans Health Administration (VHA). METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted using the VHA database (01/2013-09/2019; study period). Veterans with schizophrenia (≥2 diagnoses of ICD-9295.xx, ICD-10 F20.x, F21, and/or F25.x during the study period) were identified; the index date was the earliest observed schizophrenia diagnosis. Veterans with schizophrenia were propensity score-matched to those without schizophrenia using baseline characteristics. A 12-month baseline and variable follow-up period were applied. The frequency of unemployment, divorce, incarceration, premature death, and homelessness were compared between the matched cohorts using standardized mean difference (SMD). Risk of unemployment and homelessness were estimated using logistic regression models. RESULTS: A total of 102,207 veterans remained in each cohort after matching (91% male; 61% White [per AMA]; median age, 59 years). Among veterans with schizophrenia, 42% had a substance use disorder and 30% had mental health-related comorbidities, compared with 25 and 15%, respectively, of veterans without schizophrenia. Veterans with schizophrenia were more likely to experience unemployment (69% vs. 41%; SMD: 0.81), divorce (35% vs. 28%; SMD: 0.67), homelessness (28% vs. 7%; SMD: 0.57), incarceration (0.4% vs. 0.1%; SMD: 0.47), and premature death (14% vs. 12%; SMD < 0.1) than veterans without schizophrenia. After further adjustments, the risk of unemployment and of homelessness were 5.4 and 4.5 times higher among veterans with versus without schizophrenia. Other predictors of unemployment included Black [per AMA] race and history of substance use disorder; for homelessness, younger age (18-34 years) and history of mental health-related comorbidities were additional predictors. CONCLUSION: A greater likelihood of adverse societal outcomes was observed among veterans with versus without schizophrenia. Given their elevated risk for unemployment and homelessness, veterans with schizophrenia should be a focus of targeted, multifactorial interventions to reduce disease burden.

Development and Validation of a Clinical Risk Score to Predict Hospitalization Within 30 Days of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Diagnosis.

INTRODUCTION: Early identification of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) who are at risk for hospitalization may help to mitigate disease burden by allowing healthcare systems to conduct sufficient resource and logistical planning in the event of case surges. We sought to develop and validate a clinical risk score that uses readily accessible information at testing to predict individualized 30-day hospitalization risk following COVID-19 diagnosis. METHODS: We assembled a retrospective cohort of U.S. Veterans Health Administration patients (age ≥ 18 years) diagnosed with COVID-19 between March 1, 2020, and December 31, 2020. We screened patient characteristics using Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator logistic regression and constructed the risk score using characteristics identified as most predictive for hospitalization. Patients diagnosed before November 1, 2020, comprised the development cohort, while those diagnosed on or after November 1, 2020, comprised the validation cohort. We assessed risk score discrimination by calculating the area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curve and calibration using the Hosmer-Lemeshow (HL) goodness-of-fit test. This study was approved by the Veteran's Institutional Review Board of Northern New England at the White River Junction Veterans Affairs Medical Center (Reference no.:1473972-1). RESULTS: The development and validation cohorts comprised 11,473 and 12,970 patients, of whom 4,465 (38.9%) and 3,669 (28.3%) were hospitalized, respectively. The independent predictors for hospitalization included in the risk score were increasing age, male sex, non-white race, Hispanic ethnicity, homelessness, nursing home/long-term care residence, unemployed or retired status, fever, fatigue, diarrhea, nausea, cough, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, hypertension, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Model discrimination and calibration was good for the development (AUROC = 0.80; HL P-value = .05) and validation (AUROC = 0.80; HL P-value = .31) cohorts. CONCLUSIONS: The prediction tool developed in this study demonstrated that it could identify patients with COVID-19 who are at risk for hospitalization. This could potentially inform clinicians and policymakers of patients who may benefit most from early treatment interventions and help healthcare systems anticipate capacity surges.

Unemployment, Homelessness, and Other Societal Outcomes Among US Veterans With Schizophrenia Relapse: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

Objective: To evaluate societal outcomes including unemployment and homelessness among US veterans with schizophrenia with a history of relapse.Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted using US Veterans Health Administration (VHA) data from January 1, 2013, to September 30, 2019. Veterans with ≥ 2 diagnoses of schizophrenia, schizotypal disorder, and/or schizoaffective disorders (ICD-9-CM 295.xx, ICD-10-CM F20.x, F21, or F25.x) during the study period on different days were identified. The index date was the earliest observed diagnosis. Two cohorts were created and propensity score matched: (1) the relapse cohort of veterans with ≥ 1 prior relapse, defined as hospitalization or emergency department visit associated with a schizophrenia diagnosis during the 12-month preindex period, and (2) the nonrelapse cohort of veterans with no evidence of relapse during the preindex period. The frequencies of unemployment, divorce, homelessness, incarceration, and premature death were compared between matched cohorts using standardized mean difference (SMD ≥ 0.1 indicating imbalance).Results: Each cohort included 16,862 veterans (92.0% male, 57.0% White, median age of 58-59 years). In the relapse cohort, 67.4% and 42.0% of veterans had a history of substance use disorder and non-schizophrenia mental health disorder, respectively, compared to 43.5% and 23.8% in the matched nonrelapse cohort (both SMD > 0.1). The relapse cohort had a higher frequency of unemployment (75.4% vs 71.4%), divorce (35.6% vs 33.7%), homelessness (38.9% vs 23.7%), incarceration (0.6% vs 0.4%), and premature death (23.3% vs 16.9%) compared to the nonrelapse cohort (all SMD > 0.1).Conclusions: Schizophrenia relapse is associated with increased adverse societal outcomes in the VHA population.

Relative effectiveness of booster vs. 2-dose mRNA Covid-19 vaccination in the Veterans Health Administration: Self-controlled risk interval analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate relative effectiveness of the booster mRNA Covid-19 vaccination versus the 2-dose primary series for both Delta and Omicron variants with self-controlled study design. METHODS: We used the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) Corporate Data Warehouse to identify U.S. Veterans who received the 2-dose primary mRNA Covid-19 vaccine series and a mRNA Covid-19 booster, and who had a positive SARS-CoV-2 test during the Delta (9/23/2021-11/30/2021) or Omicron (1/1/22-3/19/22) predominant period. Among them, we conducted a self-controlled risk interval (SCRI) analysis to compare odds of SARS-CoV-2 infection during a booster exposure interval versus a control interval. Exposures were a control interval (days 4-6 post-booster vaccination, presumably prior to gain of booster immunity), and booster exposure interval (days 14-16 post-booster vaccination, presumably following gain of booster immunity). Cases had a positive PCR or antigen SARS-CoV-2 test. Separately for Delta and Omicron periods, we used conditional logistic regression to calculate odds ratios (OR) of a positive test for the booster versus control interval and calculated relative effectiveness of booster versus 2-dose primary series as (1-OR)*100. The SCRI approach implicitly controlled for time-fixed confounders. RESULTS: We found 42 individuals with a positive SARS-CoV-2 test in the control interval and 14 in the booster exposure interval during the Delta period, and 141 and 70, respectively, in the Omicron period. For the booster versus 2-dose primary series, the odds of infection were 70% (95 %CI: 42%, 84%) lower during the Delta period and 54% (95 %CI: 38%, 66%) lower during Omicron. In sensitivity analyses among those with prior Covid-19 history, and age stratification, ORs were similar to the main analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Booster vaccination was more effective relative to a 2-dose primary series during the Delta and Omicron predominant periods, and the relative effectiveness was consistent across age groups.

Effectiveness of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines against Omicron and Delta variants in a matched test-negative case-control study among US veterans.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the effectiveness of messenger RNA (mRNA) booster doses during the period of Delta and Omicron variant dominance. DESIGN: We conducted a matched test-negative case-control study to estimate the vaccine effectiveness (VE) of three and two doses of mRNA vaccines against infection (regardless of symptoms) and against COVID-19-related hospitalisation and death. SETTING: Veterans Health Administration. PARTICIPANTS: We used electronic health record data from 114 640 veterans who had a SARS-CoV-2 test during November 2021-January 2022. Patients were largely 65 years or older (52%), male (88%) and non-Hispanic white (59%). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: First positive result for a SARS-CoV-2 PCR or antigen test. RESULTS: Against infection, booster doses had higher estimated VE (64%, 95% CI 63 to 65) than two-dose vaccination (12%, 95% CI 10 to 15) during the Omicron period. For the Delta period, the VE against infection was 90% (95% CI 88 to 92) among boosted vaccinees, higher than the VE among two-dose vaccinees (54%, 95% CI 50 to 57). Against hospitalisation, booster dose VE was 89% (95% CI 88 to 91) during Omicron and 94% (95% CI 90 to 96) during Delta; two-dose VE was 63% (95% CI 58 to 67) during Omicron and 75% (95% CI 69 to 80) during Delta. Against death, the VE with a booster dose was 94% (95% CI 90 to 96) during Omicron and 96% (95% CI 87 to 99) during Delta. CONCLUSIONS: Among an older, mostly male, population with comorbidities, we found that an mRNA vaccine booster was highly effective against infection, hospitalisation and death. Although the effectiveness of booster vaccination against infection was moderately higher against Delta than against the Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variant, effectiveness against severe disease and death was similarly high against both variants.

Coverage and Estimated Effectiveness of mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines Among US Veterans.

Importance: Effectiveness of mRNA vaccinations in a diverse older population with high comorbidity is unknown. Objectives: To describe the scope of the COVID-19 vaccination rollout among US veterans, and to estimate mRNA COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness (VE) as measured by rates of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Design, Setting, and Participants: This matched test-negative case-control study was conducted using SARS-CoV-2 test results at Veterans Health Administration sites from December 14, 2020, to March 14, 2021. Vaccine coverage was estimated for all veterans. VE against SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19-related hospitalization and death were estimated using electronic health records from veterans who routinely sought care at a VHA facility and had a test result positive for SARS-CoV-2 (cases) or negative for SARS-CoV-2 (controls). Cases and controls were matched on time of test and geographic region. Data were analyzed from May to July 2021. Exposures: Vaccination status, defined as unvaccinated, partially vaccinated (≥14 days after first dose until second dose), or fully vaccinated (≥14 days after second dose), at time of test. Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcome of interest was a positive result for SARS-CoV-2 on a polymerase chain reaction or antigen test. Secondary outcomes included COVID-19-related hospitalization and death, defined by discharge data and proximity of event to positive test result. VE was estimated from odds ratios for SARS-CoV-2 infection with 95% CIs. Results: Among 6 647 733 veterans included (3 350 373 veterans [50%] aged ≥65 years; 6 014 798 [90%] men and 632 935 [10%] women; 461 645 Hispanic veterans of any race [7%], 1 102 471 non-Hispanic Black veterans [17%], and 4 361 621 non-Hispanic White veterans [66%]), 1 363 180 (21%) received at least 1 COVID-19 vaccination by March 7, 2021. In this period, during which the share of SARS-CoV-2 variants Alpha, Epsilon, and Iota had started to increase in the US, estimates of COVID-19 VE against infection, regardless of symptoms, was 95% (95% CI, 93%-96%) for full vaccination and 64% (95% CI, 59%-68%) for partial vaccination. Estimated VE against COVID-19-related hospitalization for full vaccination was 91% (95% CI 83%-95%); there were no deaths among veterans who were fully vaccinated. VE against infection was similar across subpopulations (non-Hispanic Black, 94% [95% CI, 88%-97%]; Hispanic [any race], 83% [95% CI, 45%-95%]; non-Hispanic White, 92% [95% CI 88%-94%]; rural, 94% [95% CI, 89%-96%]; urban, 93% 95% CI, 89%-95%]). Conclusions and Relevance: For veterans of all racial and ethnic subgroups living in urban or rural areas, mRNA vaccination was associated with substantially decreased risk of COVID-19 infection and hospitalization, with no deaths among fully vaccinated veterans.

Symptomatic Herpes Simplex Virus Infection and Risk of Dementia in US Veterans: a Cohort Study.

A Taiwanese cohort study found that symptomatic herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection was associated with a threefold increased risk of developing dementia; however, antiherpetic medication reduced the risk by 90%. Our aim was to verify and further investigate this finding in the US Veteran population using comprehensive electronic medical records from the Veterans Health Administration (VHA). Eighty-seven thousand six hundred eighty-seven Veterans aged 50 or older with symptomatic HSV-1/HSV-2 infection and 217,895 matched controls were identified in VHA data between January 1, 2001, and December 31, 2014, and followed until December 31, 2019. International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes, ninth and tenth revisions, were used to define dementia. To define HSV infection, we utilized VHA data on antiherpetic medications and laboratory tests in addition to ICD codes. Cox proportional hazards models were used to analyze the effects of HSV infection and antiherpetic medication on the risk of developing dementia. The analysis revealed an adjusted HR of 0.80 (95% CI, 0.78-0.83) for the development of dementia among those with symptomatic HSV relative to those without. Among the 61,776 HSV-1/HSV-2 patients who were treated with antiherpetic medication, 4836 patients (7.8%) developed dementia (adjusted HR = 0.75; 95% CI, 0.72-0.78); this translated to a population average of one additional year of being dementia free in those who were taking antiherpetic medication. In contrast to Tzeng et al. we did not find that HSV infection was associated with an increased risk of dementia. Like their findings, we found that antiherpetic medication was associated with a protective effect against dementia. Future prospective studies are needed to further investigate this effect.