Recommendations for daytime, evening, and nighttime indoor light exposure to best support physiology, sleep, and wakefulness in healthy adults.

Ocular light exposure has important influences on human health and well-being through modulation of circadian rhythms and sleep, as well as neuroendocrine and cognitive functions. Prevailing patterns of light exposure do not optimally engage these actions for many individuals, but advances in our understanding of the underpinning mechanisms and emerging lighting technologies now present opportunities to adjust lighting to promote optimal physical and mental health and performance. A newly developed, international standard provides a SI-compliant way of quantifying the influence of light on the intrinsically photosensitive, melanopsin-expressing, retinal neurons that mediate these effects. The present report provides recommendations for lighting, based on an expert scientific consensus and expressed in an easily measured quantity (melanopic equivalent daylight illuminance (melaponic EDI)) defined within this standard. The recommendations are supported by detailed analysis of the sensitivity of human circadian, neuroendocrine, and alerting responses to ocular light and provide a straightforward framework to inform lighting design and practice.

Optical performance characterization of light-logging actigraphy dosimeters.

There are several wearable products specially developed or marketed for studying sleep, circadian rhythms, and light levels. However, new recommendations relating to human physiological responses to light have changed what measurements researchers may demand. The performances of 11 light-logging dosimeters from eight manufacturers were compared. The directional and spectral sensitivities, linearity, dynamic range, and resolution were tested for seven models, and compared along with other published data. The sample mainly comprised light-logging actigraphy dosimeters wearable as badges, in accordance with measurement protocols for larger-scale field studies. A proposed standard for optical performance assessments is set out.

Effects of ambient temperature on the performance of CCD array spectroradiometers and practical implications for field measurements.

The performance of miniature CCD array spectroradiometers, which are widely used for the assessment of personal and environmental exposures, may be affected by variations in ambient temperature. The dark signal, spectral sensitivity and wavelength position of six different array spectroradiometer models, produced by two different manufacturers, were assessed in ambient temperatures ranging from 5 °C to 40 °C. The results are presented with a discussion of the practical implications for field measurements when the instruments are used outside of a temperature controlled environment.

Daylight and Electric Lighting in Primary and Secondary School Classrooms in the UK-An Observational Study.

Only a few recent studies report direct assessment or monitoring of light levels in the indoor learning environment, and no consensus exists on minimum exposures for children's health. For instance, myopia is a common progressive condition, with genetic and environmental risk factors. Reduced daylight exposure, electric lighting changes, increased near-work for school children, greater academic focus, and use of display screens and white boards may have important detrimental influences. Published assessment methods had varied limitations, such as incomplete compliance from participants wearing light loggers for extended periods. Climate-Based Daylight Modelling is encouraged in UK school design, but design approaches are impractical for post-occupancy assessments of pre-existing classrooms or ad hoc modifications. In this study, we investigated the potential for direct assessment and monitoring of classroom daylight and lighting measurements. Combined with objective assessments of outdoor exposures and class time use, the classroom data could inform design and light exposure interventions to reduce the various health impacts of inadequate daylight exposure. The relevant environmental measure for myopia depends on the hypothesized mechanism, so the illuminance, spectral distribution, and temporal light modulation from the electric lighting was also assessed.

Entropy, color, and color rendering.

The Shannon entropy [Bell Syst. Tech J.27, 379 (1948)] of spectral distributions is applied to the problem of color rendering. With this novel approach, calculations for visual white entropy, spectral entropy, and color rendering are proposed, indices that are unreliant on the subjectivity inherent in reference spectra and color samples. The indices are tested against real lamp spectra, showing a simple and robust system for color rendering assessment. The discussion considers potential roles for white entropy in several areas of color theory and psychophysics and nonextensive entropy generalizations of the entropy indices in mathematical color spaces.

Circadian and visual photometry.

Photometry is the metrology of light-optical radiation seen by the human eye due to its action on retinal photoreceptors. Its origins are closely tied to the International Commission on Illumination (CIE), which remains responsible for photometry standards and the language of light used in science and technology. When in 1931 it had become possible to model the response to light of the human eye based on reliable spectroradiometry data, the CIE published standard formulae for predicting the luminance of a stimulus. These and related colorimetry formulae are still in use, having been internationally agreed and adopted. Both fields continue to be the subject of active research and increasing accuracy. CIE S 026:2018 represents another milestone for the metrology of light (CIE, 2018a). It is the first standard where light is considered for its ability to evoke circadian and neurophysiological responses, and includes the spectral sensitivity of melanopsin-a retinal photopigment discovered, and shown to be contributing to and influencing responses from human intrinsically-photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), only 20 years ago (Berson et al., 2002; Hattar et al., 2002; Provencio et al., 1998). These accessory visual functions also depend to some extent on inputs from the rods and three types of cones; until very recently, rods and cones (or "classical photoreceptors") were the only photoreceptors in visual models. If photometry standards are replaced with modern physiological data, consistent changes should be expected in the photometry of these accessory functions. This chapter outlines the current standards, their definitions and calculations, and how the main elements are related.

Assessment of the Light Exposures of Shift-working Nurses in London and Dortmund in Relation to Recommendations for Sleep and Circadian Health.

Shift work causes disruption to circadian physiological processes in the human body, and desynchronization from the natural day-and-night rhythm. Circadian disruption is thought to explain the associations between shift work and various long-term diseases; light is an unrivalled synchronizer (or Zeitgeber) of circadian processes and inappropriate light exposure plausibly plays a critical role in the development of health impairments. As published measurement data on the actual light environments encountered by shift workers are sparse, nurses working in two hospitals in London (UK) and Dortmund (Germany) wore light-logging dosimetry devices to measure personal light exposures continuously over a week in three different seasons. The study identifies and quantifies several of the characteristics of light exposure related to different working patterns in winter, spring, and summer, and quantifies interindividual variations. These data enable informed design of light exposure interventions or changes to shifts to reduce unwanted effects of disruptive light exposure profiles.

The Lighting Environment, Its Metrology, and Non-visual Responses.

International standard CIE S 026:2018 provides lighting professionals and field researchers in chronobiology with a method to characterize light exposures with respect to non-visual photoreception and responses. This standard defines five spectral sensitivity functions that describe optical radiation for its ability to stimulate each of the five α-opic retinal photoreceptor classes that contribute to the non-visual effects of light in humans via intrinsically-photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs). The CIE also recently published an open-access α-opic toolbox that calculates all the quantities and ratios of the α-opic metrology in the photometric, radiometric and photon systems, based on either a measured (user-defined) spectrum or selected illuminants (A, D65, E, FL11, LED-B3) built into the toolbox. For a wide variety of ecologically-valid conditions, the melanopsin-based photoreception of ipRGCs has been shown to account for the spectral sensitivity of non-visual responses, from shifting the timing of nocturnal sleep and melatonin secretion to regulating steady-state pupil diameter. Recent findings continue to confirm that the photopigment melanopsin also plays a role in visual responses, and that melanopsin-based photoreception may have a significant influence on brightness perception and aspects of spatial vision. Although knowledge concerning the extent to which rods and cones interact with ipRGCs in driving non-visual effects is still growing, a CIE position statement recently used melanopic equivalent daylight (D65) illuminance in preliminary guidance on applying "proper light at the proper time" to manipulate non-visual responses. Further guidance on this approach is awaited from the participants of the 2nd International Workshop on Circadian and Neurophysiological Photometry (in Manchester, August 2019). The new α-opic metrology of CIE S 026 enables traceable measurements and a formal, quantitative specification of personal light exposures, photic interventions and lighting designs. Here, we apply this metrology to everyday light sources including a natural daylight time series, a range of LED lighting products and, using the toobox, to a smartphone display screen. This collection of examples suggests ways in which variations in the melanopic content of light over the day can be adopted in strategies that use light to support human health and well-being.

DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF CCD ARRAY SPECTRORADIOMETERS.

A number of factors affect the measurements by charge coupled (CCD) array spectroradiometers, including stray light, dynamic response and ambient temperature. The departure from linearity was assessed for four CCD array spectroradiometers and linearity correction calculated with standard uncertainties error estimates. A fixed irradiance source supplemented with neutral density filters was used to allow tests to cover a full range of operational conditions. The dependence of the dynamic response on well depth and integration time was investigated. One spectroradiometer exhibited an accumulated departure from linearity of ∼20 % near the top of the well; for others the departure from linearity was less pronounced.

Estimating Sun Exposure of Children in Day Care Nurseries in South Oxfordshire, UK.

Exposure to ultraviolet radiation and sunburn during childhood and adolescence is linked to increased risks of melanoma and basal cell carcinoma later in life. Infants and toddlers are thought to be unusually vulnerable to UVR because of lower levels of melanin, a thinner stratum corneum and a higher surface area/body mass ratio. The aim of this study was to assess variations in the available erythema effective radiant doses to young children in day care nurseries in South Oxfordshire, UK over 7 years between 2008 and 2014. The data were analyzed in three distinct seasons according to a series of realistic exposure scenarios taking into account nursery routines. The results indicate the time of year when high doses are to be expected and provide strong support for arguments in favor of raising public awareness of sun protection earlier in the year.

On the role of exponential smoothing in circadian dosimetry.

The effects lighting has on health through modulation of circadian rhythms are becoming increasingly well documented. Data are still needed to show how light exposures are influenced by architecture and lighting design and circadian dosimetry analyses should provide duration, phase and amplitude measures of 24 h exposure profiles. Exponential smoothing is used to derive suitable metrics from 24 h light measurements collected from private dwellings. A further application of these modified exposure time series as physiological models of the light drive is discussed. Unlike previous light drive models, the dose rate persists into periods of darkness following exposures. Comparisons to long duration exposure studies suggest this type of persistent light drive model could be incorporated into contemporary physiological models of the human circadian oscillator.

Measuring and using light in the melanopsin age.

Light is a potent stimulus for regulating circadian, hormonal, and behavioral systems. In addition, light therapy is effective for certain affective disorders, sleep problems, and circadian rhythm disruption. These biological and behavioral effects of light are influenced by a distinct photoreceptor in the eye, melanopsin-containing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), in addition to conventional rods and cones. We summarize the neurophysiology of this newly described sensory pathway and consider implications for the measurement, production, and application of light. A new light-measurement strategy taking account of the complex photoreceptive inputs to these non-visual responses is proposed for use by researchers, and simple suggestions for artificial/architectural lighting are provided for regulatory authorities, lighting manufacturers, designers, and engineers.