Adhesion, motility and matrix-degrading gene expression changes in CSF-1-induced mouse macrophage differentiation.

Migratory macrophages play critical roles in tissue development, homeostasis and disease, so it is important to understand how their migration machinery is regulated. Whole-transcriptome sequencing revealed that CSF-1-stimulated differentiation of bone marrow-derived precursors into mature macrophages is accompanied by widespread, profound changes in the expression of genes regulating adhesion, actin cytoskeletal remodeling and extracellular matrix degradation. Significantly altered expression of almost 40% of adhesion genes, 60-86% of Rho family GTPases, their regulators and effectors and over 70% of extracellular proteases occurred. The gene expression changes were mirrored by changes in macrophage adhesion associated with increases in motility and matrix-degrading capacity. IL-4 further increased motility and matrix-degrading capacity in mature macrophages, with additional changes in migration machinery gene expression. Finally, siRNA-induced reductions in the expression of the core adhesion proteins paxillin and leupaxin decreased macrophage spreading and the number of adhesions, with distinct effects on adhesion and their distribution, and on matrix degradation. Together, the datasets provide an important resource to increase our understanding of the regulation of migration in macrophages and to develop therapies targeting disease-enhancing macrophages.

Comparative reactivity of the myeloperoxidase-derived oxidants HOCl and HOSCN with low-density lipoprotein (LDL): Implications for foam cell formation in atherosclerosis.

Atherosclerosis is characterised by the accumulation of lipids within macrophages in the artery wall. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is the source of this lipid, owing to the uptake of oxidised LDL by scavenger receptors. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) released by leukocytes during inflammation produces oxidants that are implicated in atherosclerosis. Modification of LDL by the MPO oxidant hypochlorous acid (HOCl), results in extensive lipid accumulation by macrophages. However, the reactivity of the other major MPO oxidant, hypothiocyanous acid (HOSCN) with LDL is poorly characterised, which is significant given that thiocyanate is the favoured substrate for MPO. In this study, we comprehensively compare the reactivity of HOCl and HOSCN with LDL, and show key differences in the profile of oxidative damage observed. HOSCN selectively modifies Cys residues on apolipoprotein B100, and oxidises cholesteryl esters resulting in formation of lipid hydroperoxides, 9-hydroxy-10,12-octadecadienoic acid (9-HODE) and F2-isoprostanes. The modification of LDL by HOSCN results macrophage lipid accumulation, though generally to a lesser extent than HOCl-modified LDL. This suggests that a change in the ratio of HOSCN:HOCl formation by MPO from variations in plasma thiocyanate levels, will influence the nature of LDL oxidation in vivo, and has implications for the progression of atherosclerosis.

Specific dietary polyphenols attenuate atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-knockout mice by alleviating inflammation and endothelial dysfunction.

OBJECTIVE: Animal and clinical studies have suggested that polyphenols in fruits, red wine, and tea may delay the development of atherosclerosis through their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. We investigated whether individual dietary polyphenols representing different polyphenolic classes, namely quercetin (flavonol), (-)-epicatechin (flavan-3-ol), theaflavin (dimeric catechin), sesamin (lignan), or chlorogenic acid (phenolic acid), reduce atherosclerotic lesion formation in the apolipoprotein E (ApoE)(-/-) gene-knockout mouse. METHODS AND RESULTS: Quercetin and theaflavin (64-mg/kg body mass daily) significantly attenuated atherosclerotic lesion size in the aortic sinus and thoracic aorta (P<0.05 versus ApoE(-/-) control mice). Quercetin significantly reduced aortic F(2)-isoprostane, vascular superoxide, vascular leukotriene B(4), and plasma-sP-selectin concentrations; and augmented vascular endothelial NO synthase activity, heme oxygenase-1 protein, and urinary nitrate excretion (P<0.05 versus control ApoE(-/-) mice). Theaflavin showed similar, although less extensive, significant effects. Although (-)-epicatechin significantly reduced F(2)-isoprostane, superoxide, and endothelin-1 production (P<0.05 versus control ApoE(-/-) mice), it had no significant effect on lesion size. Sesamin and chlorogenic acid treatments exerted no significant effects. Quercetin, but not (-)-epicatechin, significantly increased the expression of heme oxygenase-1 protein in lesions versus ApoE(-/-) controls. CONCLUSIONS: Specific dietary polyphenols, in particular quercetin and theaflavin, may attenuate atherosclerosis in ApoE(-/-) gene-knockout mice by alleviating inflammation, improving NO bioavailability, and inducing heme oxygenase-1. These data suggest that the cardiovascular protection associated with diets rich in fruits, vegetables, and some beverages may in part be the result of flavonoids, such as quercetin.

A metabolite profiling approach to identify biomarkers of flavonoid intake in humans.

Flavonoids are phytochemicals that are widespread in the human diet. Despite limitations in their bioavailability, experimental and epidemiological data suggest health benefits of flavonoid consumption. Valid biomarkers of flavonoid intake may be useful for estimating exposure in a range of settings. However, to date, few useful flavonoid biomarkers have been identified. In this study, we used a metabolite profiling approach to examine the aromatic and phenolic profile of plasma and urine of healthy men after oral consumption of 200 mg of the pure flavonoids, quercetin, (-)-epicatechin, and epigallocatechin gallate, which represent major flavonoid constituents in the diet. Following enzymatic hydrolysis, 71 aromatic compounds were quantified in plasma and urine at 2 and 5 h, respectively, after flavonoid ingestion. Plasma concentrations of different aromatic compounds ranged widely, from 0.01 to 10 micromol/L, with variation among volunteers. None of the aromatic compounds was significantly elevated in plasma 2 h after consumption of either flavonoid compared with water placebo. This indicates that flavonoid-derived aromatic compounds are not responsible for the acute physiological effects reported within 2 h in previous human intervention studies involving flavonoids or flavonoid-rich food consumption. These effects are more likely due to absorption of the intact flavonoid. Our urine analysis suggested that urinary 4-ethylphenol, benzoic acid, and 4-ethylbenzoic acid may be potential biomarkers of quercetin intake and 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene, 4-O-methylgallic acid, 3-O-methylgallic acid, and gallic acid may be potential markers of epigallocatechin gallate intake. Potential biomarkers of (-)-epicatechin were not identified. These urinary biomarkers may provide an accurate indication of flavonoid exposure.

Quercetin and its in vivo metabolites inhibit neutrophil-mediated low-density lipoprotein oxidation.

This study examined the effects of metabolic transformation of the common dietary flavonoid, quercetin, on its ability to protect low-density lipoprotein (LDL) from neutrophil-mediated modification. Quercetin was shown to be effective in protecting LDL against neutrophil-mediated modification at physiological concentrations (1 microM) and appears to act by inhibiting myeloperoxidase (MPO)-catalyzed oxidation (IC(50) = 1.0 microM). Quercetin was also shown to protect against radical-induced [2,2'-azobis(2-methylpropionamidine)dihydrochloride] oxidation (IC(50) = 1.5 microM). Studies of structure-activity relationships showed that methylation at the 3'-position or glucuronidation at the 3-position did not significantly affect inhibition by quercetin of the MPO activity, but conjugations at both positions significantly reduce its activity. Our results suggest that the common dietary flavonoid, quercetin, and some of its major in vivo metabolites are potential inhibitors of MPO at physiological concentrations. Dietary flavonoids that could modify MPO activity could protect lipoproteins from damage in chronic inflammatory states such as cardiovascular disease.

F2-Isoprostanes in HDL are bound to neutral lipids and phospholipids.

Low HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) is a risk factor for coronary artery disease (CAD). However, interventions that raise HDL-C have failed to reduce cardiovascular events. We previously reported that HDL is the main carrier of plasma F2-isoprostanes (F2-IsoPs) that are markers of oxidative stress formed upon oxidation of arachidonic acid. F2-IsoPs are predominantly associated with phospholipids. However, there is evidence that F2-IsoPs in the liver of rats treated with carbon tetrachloride associate with the neutral lipids. To date it is not known whether F2-IsoPs are found in the neutral lipids in HDL in humans. Possible candidate neutral lipids include cholesteryl esters, triglycerides, diglycerides, and monoglycerides. This study aimed to identify the lipid classes within native and oxidized HDL that contain F2-IsoPs. We showed that F2-IsoPs in HDL are bound to neutral lipids as well as phospholipids. HDL-3 contained the highest concentration of F2-IsoPs in all lipid classes before and after in vitro oxidation. Using targeted LC/MS and high resolution MS, we were unable to provide conclusive evidence for the presence of the synthesized standards 15(R)-15-F2t-isoP cholesterol and 1-ent-15(RS)-15-F2t-isoprostanoyl-sn-glycerol in the neutral lipids of HDL. Our findings show that oxidized lipids such as F2-IsoPs are found in the core and surface of HDL. However, the exact molecular species remain to be definitively characterized. Future studies are required to determine whether the presence of F2-IsoPs in neutral lipids alters HDL function.

HDL is the major lipoprotein carrier of plasma F2-isoprostanes.

Enhanced oxidative stress is implicated in the development of atherosclerosis in humans and animal models. F(2)-isoprostanes are formed in vivo via free radical peroxidation of arachidonic acid, and their quantification has allowed assessment of oxidative stress in vivo. F(2)-isoprostanes associate with lipids, although their distribution in human plasma lipoproteins is unknown. Our aim was to determine the distribution and levels of F(2)-isoprostanes in lipoproteins isolated from human plasma by ultracentrifugation and fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC). F(2)-isoprostanes were significantly higher in HDL compared with LDL or VLDL after isolation by ultracentrifugation or FPLC. Furthermore, HDL3 particles contained elevated levels of F(2)-isoprostanes compared with HDL2. Platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH), which hydrolyses esterified F(2)-isoprostanes from phospholipids, was predominantly associated with LDL. Reduced F(2)-isoprostanes in LDL may be related to higher PAF-AH activity in LDL. Paraoxonase 1 (PON-1) activity was associated with HDL2 and may be a contributing factor to the lower F(2)-isoprostanes in HDL2 compared with HDL3. Further studies are required to establish the implications of these findings on HDL function.

Pure dietary flavonoids quercetin and (-)-epicatechin augment nitric oxide products and reduce endothelin-1 acutely in healthy men.

BACKGROUND: Dietary flavonoids may improve endothelial function and ultimately lead to beneficial cardiovascular effects. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to assess whether pure dietary flavonoids can modulate nitric oxide and endothelin-1 production and thereby improve endothelial function. DESIGN: A randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial in 12 healthy men was conducted to compare the acute effects of the oral administration of 200 mg quercetin, (-)-epicatechin, or epigallocatechin gallate on nitric oxide, endothelin-1, and oxidative stress after nitric oxide production was assessed via the measurement of plasma S-nitrosothiols and plasma and urinary nitrite and nitrate concentrations. The effects on oxidative stress were assessed by measuring plasma and urinary F(2)-isoprostanes. Plasma and urinary concentrations of quercetin, (-)-epicatechin, and epigallocatechin gallate were measured to establish the absorption of these flavonoids. RESULTS: Relative to water (control), quercetin and (-)-epicatechin resulted in a significant increase in plasma S-nitrosothiols, plasma nitrite, and urinary nitrate concentrations (P < 0.05), but not in plasma nitrate or urinary nitrite. Epigallocatechin gallate did not alter any of the measures of nitric oxide production. Quercetin and (-)-epicatechin resulted in a significant reduction in plasma endothelin-1 concentration (P < 0.05), but only quercetin significantly decreased the urinary endothelin-1 concentration. None of the 3 treatments significantly changed plasma or urinary F(2)-isoprostane concentrations. Significant increases in the circulating concentrations of the 3 flavonoids were observed (P < 0.05) after the corresponding treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary flavonoids, such as quercetin and (-)-epicatechin, can augment nitric oxide status and reduce endothelin-1 concentrations and may thereby improve endothelial function.

Metabolic transformation has a profound effect on anti-inflammatory activity of flavonoids such as quercetin: lack of association between antioxidant and lipoxygenase inhibitory activity.

Dietary flavonoids are thought to have health benefits possibly due to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Many previous in vitro studies examining the bioactivity of flavonoids have failed to consider the effects of metabolic transformation on flavonoid activity. In this study we examined the effect of quercetin and its major metabolites on the production of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids by human leukocytes. Studies comparing free radical scavenging, antioxidant activity and eicosanoid production demonstrate that there are different structural requirements for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. We also investigated the effect of metabolic transformation on flavonoid bioactivity by comparing the activity of quercetin and its major metabolites to inhibit inflammatory eicosanoid production from human leukocytes. Quercetin was a potent inhibitor of leukotriene B4 formation in leukocytes (IC50 approximately 2 microM), and its activity was dependent on specific structural features, particularly the 2,3-double bond of the C-ring. Functionalisation of the 3'-OH group with either methyl or sulfate reduced inhibitory activity up to 50% while a glucuronide substituent at the 3-OH effectively removed the LTB4 inhibitory activity. The major quercetin metabolite quercetin-3'-O-sulfate retained considerable lipoxygenase inhibitory activity (IC50 approximately 7 microM) while quercetin-3-O-glucuronide maintained antioxidant activity but had no lipoxygenase inhibitory activity at physiological concentrations. In conclusion, we have found that structural modification of quercetin due to metabolic transformation had a profound effect on bioactivity, and that the structural features required for antioxidant activity of quercetin and related flavonoids were unrelated to those required for inhibition of inflammatory eicosanoids.

Effects of alpha-tocopherol and mixed tocopherol supplementation on markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin E isomers may protect against atherosclerosis. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of supplementation with either alpha-tocopherol (alphaT) or mixed tocopherols rich in gamma-tocopherol (gammaT) on markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 55 patients with type 2 diabetes were randomly assigned to receive (500 mg/day) (a) alphaT, (b) mixed tocopherols, or (c) placebo for 6 weeks. Cellular tocopherols, plasma and urine F(2)-isoprostanes, erythrocyte antioxidant enzyme activities, plasma inflammatory markers, and ex vivo assessment of eicosanoid synthesis were analyzed pre- and postsupplementation. RESULTS: Neutrophil alphaT and gammaT increased (both P <0.001) with mixed tocopherol supplementation, whereas alphaT (P <0.001) increased and gammaT decreased (P <0.005) after alphaT supplementation. Both alphaT and mixed tocopherol supplementation resulted in reduced plasma F(2)-isoprostanes (P <0.001 and P = 0.001, respectively) but did not affect 24-h urinary F(2)-isoprostanes or erythrocyte antioxidant enzyme activities. Neither alphaT nor mixed tocopherol supplementation affected plasma C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, or monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. Stimulated neutrophil leukotriene B(4) production decreased significantly in the mixed tocopherol group (P = 0.02) but not in the alphaT group (P = 0.15). CONCLUSIONS: The ability of tocopherols to reduce systemic oxidative stress suggests potential benefits of vitamin E supplementation in patients with type 2 diabetes. In populations with well-controlled type 2 diabetes, supplementation with either alphaT or mixed tocopherols rich in gammaT is unlikely to confer further benefits in reducing inflammation.

Augmentation of monocyte intracellular ascorbate in vitro protects cells from oxidative damage and inflammatory responses.

Ascorbic acid is present as a primary antioxidant in plasma and within cells, protecting both cytosolic and membrane components of cells from oxidative damage. The effects of intracellular ascorbic acid on F(2)-isoprostanes (biomarkers of oxidative stress) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (marker of inflammatory responses) production in monocytic THP-1 cells were investigated under conditions of 2,2'-Azobis(2-methylpropionamidine)dihydrochloride (AAPH) induced oxidative stress. Cells cultured under normal conditions have extremely low ascorbate levels and the intracellular ascorbate can be augmented significantly by adding ascorbate to the culture medium. While AAPH treatment reduced cell viability, increased F(2)-isoprostanes and MCP-1 production, the presence of intracellular ascorbic acid maintained high cell viability and attenuated both F(2)-isoprostanes and MCP-1 production. Measurement of intracellular ascorbic acid and its oxidised products showed that intracellular ASC was oxidised to a significantly greater extent during AAPH treatment and may be utilised to protect the cells under conditions of oxidative stress. This study demonstrates the importance of intracellular ascorbate, which may be lacking under normal cell culture conditions, under conditions of increased oxidative stress.

Angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonists inhibit basal as well as low-density lipoprotein and platelet-activating factor-stimulated human monocyte chemoattractant protein-1.

Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) is a potent chemotactic agent for monocytes and other cells and is thought to be involved in atherosclerosis, recruiting monocytes to the subendothelial space or to the site of inflammation. Angiotensin II has been demonstrated, at least in animal models, to stimulate MCP-1 expression. We investigated the effect of the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor antagonists irbesartan and losartan on MCP-1 production by freshly isolated human monocytes. Irbesartan and losartan inhibited basal MCP-1 production in a dose-dependent manner. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) stimulated MCP-1 in a concentration-dependent manner, with 200 microg/ml LDL protein giving a 2-fold increase in MCP-1. Irbesartan and losartan dose dependently blocked LDL-stimulated MCP-1. An angiotensin II type 2 receptor antagonist, S-(+)-1-([4-(dimethylamino)-3-methylphenyl]methyl)-5-(diphenylacetyl)-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-imidazo(4,5-c)pyridine-6-carboxylic acid (PD123319), had no significant effect on basal MCP-1 levels or LDL-stimulated MCP-1. After noting homology between the AT1 receptor and the platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor, we showed that irbesartan inhibited both [3H]PAF binding to human monocytes and carbamyl-PAF stimulation of MCP-1. However, irbesartan affinity for the PAF receptor was 700 times less than PAF, suggesting that there may be another mechanism for irbesartan inhibition of PAF-stimulated MCP-1. This is the first report showing that AT1 receptor antagonists inhibit basal as well as LDL- and PAF-stimulated MCP-1 production in freshly isolated human monocytes.