Clinical criteria and diagnostic assessment of fibromyalgia: position statement of the Italian Society of Neurology-Neuropathic Pain Study Group.

BACKGROUND: The role of central and/or peripheral nervous system dysfunction is basically fundamental in fibromyalgia. AIM: The aim of this position statement on behalf of the Neuropathic Pain Study Group of the Italian Society of Neurology is to give practical guidelines for the clinical and instrumental assessment of fibromyalgia (FM) in the neurological clinical practice, taking into consideration recent studies. METHODS: Criteria for study selection and consideration were original studies, case-controls design, use of standardized methodologies for clinical practice, and FM diagnosis with ACR criteria (2010, 2011, 2016). RESULTS: ACR criteria were revised. For diagnostic procedure of small-fiber pathology, 47 studies were totally considered. Recent diagnostic criteria should be applied (ACR, 2016). A rheumatologic visit seems mandatory. The involvement of small fibers should request at least 2 among HRV + SSR and/or laser-evoked responses and/or skin biopsy and/or corneal confocal microscopy, eventually followed by monitoring of metabolic and/or immunological/ and or/paraneoplastic basis, to be repeated at 1-year follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The correct diagnostic approach to FM could promote the exclusion of the known causes of small-fiber impairment. The research toward common genetic factors would be useful to promote a more specific therapeutic approach.

The analysis of epidermal nerve fibre spatial distribution improves the diagnostic yield of skin biopsy.

AIM: Small fibre neuropathy (SFN) diagnosis represents a challenge for neurologists. The diagnostic gold standard is intraepidermal nerve fibre (IENF) density, but in about 10-20% of patients with symptoms/signs and abnormalities on functional tests, it remains within normal range. We propose an adjunctive parameter to improve the efficiency of skin biopsy diagnosis. METHODS: We recruited 31 patients with SFN symptoms/signs, normal nerve conduction study, abnormal quantitative sensory testing and normal IENF density. We also included 31 healthy controls and 31 SFN patients with reduced IENF density as control groups. RESULTS: We measured the distance between consecutive IENFs in the three groups. Mean inter-fibre distances did not differ between patients with normal counts and healthy controls (66.7 ± 14.5 µm vs. 76.7 ± 13.4 µm; P = 0.052), while the relative standard deviation was significantly (P < 0.001) higher in patients (79.3 ± 29.9) compared to controls (51.6 ± 12.2). Using ROC analysis, we identified an inter-fibre distance of 350 µm as the measure that better differentiated patients from controls (AUC = 0.85, sensitivity: 74%, specificity: 94%). At least one such segment was also observed in all patients with reduced IENF count. CONCLUSION: Irregular spatial distribution is an SFN intrinsic feature preceding actual nerve loss. The presence of a stretch of denervated epidermis longer than 350 µm is a parameter able to increase the diagnostic efficiency of skin biopsy.

A Delphi consensus statement of the Neuropathic Pain Special Interest Group of the Italian Neurological Society on pharmacoresistant neuropathic pain.

To improve patient care and help clinical research, the Neuropathic Pain Special Interest Group of the Italian Neurological Society appointed a task force to elaborate a consensus statement on pharmacoresistant neuropathic pain. The task force included 19 experts in neuropathic pain. These experts participated in a Delphi survey consisting of three consecutive rounds of questions and a face-to-face meeting, designed to achieve a consensus definition of pharmacoresistant neuropathic pain. In the three rounds of questions, the participants identified and described the main distinguishing features of pharmacoresistance. In the face-to-face meeting the participants discussed the clinical features determining pharmacoresistance. They finally agreed that neuropathic pain is pharmacoresistant when "the patient does not reach the 50% reduction of pain or an improvement of at least 2 points in the Patient Global Impression of Change, having used all drug classes indicated as first, second, or third line in the most recent and widely agreed international guidelines, for at least 1 month after titration to the highest tolerable dose." Our consensus statement might be useful for identifying eligible patients for invasive treatments, and selecting patients in pharmacological trials, thus improving patient care and helping clinical research.

The role of skin biopsy in differentiating small-fiber neuropathy from ganglionopathy.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: We aimed to test the clinical utility of the leg:thigh intraepidermal nerve-fiber (IENF) density ratio as a parameter to discriminate between length-dependent small-fiber neuropathy (SFN) and small-fiber sensory ganglionopathy (SFSG) in subjects with signs and symptoms of small-fiber pathology. METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated thigh and leg IENF density in 314 subjects with small-fiber pathology (173 with distal symmetrical length-dependent SFN and 141 with non-length-dependent SFSG). A group of 288 healthy subjects was included as a control group. The leg:thigh IENF density ratio was calculated for all subjects. We used receiver operating characteristic curve analyses to assess the ability of this parameter to discriminate between length-dependent SFN and SFSG, and the decision curve analysis to estimate its net clinical benefit. RESULTS: In patients with neuropathy, the mean IENF density was 14.8 ± 6.8/mm at the thigh (14.0 ± 6.9/mm in length-dependent SFN and 15.9 ± 6.7/mm in patients with SFSG) and 7.5 ± 4.5/mm at the distal leg (5.4 ± 3.2/mm in patients with length-dependent SFN and 10.1 ± 4.6/mm in patients with SFSG). The leg:thigh IENF density ratio was significantly (P < 0.01) lower in patients with length-dependent SFN (0.44 ± 0.23) compared with patients with SFSG (0.68 ± 0.28). The area under the curve of the receiver operating characteristic analysis to discriminate between patients with length-dependent SFN and SFSG was 0.79. The decision curve analysis demonstrated the clinical utility of this parameter. CONCLUSIONS: The leg:thigh IENF ratio represents a valuable tool in the differential diagnosis between SFSG and length-dependent SFN.

Non-motor involvement in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: new insight from nerve and vessel analysis in skin biopsy.

AIMS: To assess cutaneous sensory and autonomic nerves and the vascular bed in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). METHODS: We enrolled 41 patients (M = 20, aged 63.5 ± 11.8 years), and 41 age- and gender-matched healthy volunteers (M = 20, aged 63.5 ± 11.8 years). Disease severity and sensory and autonomic symptoms were scored using dedicated rating scales. Skin biopsies obtained from thigh, leg and fingertip were processed using indirect immunofluorescence. Intraepidermal nerve fibres, Meissner corpuscles (MCs), intrapapillary myelinated endings, cholinergic and noradrenergic pilomotor nerves and dermal vessels were quantified on confocal images. Intraepidermal nerve fibres, pilomotor nerves and vessels were also assessed on distal leg skin samples of 10 spinal cord injury patients to compare our findings with those of a chronic hypomobility condition. RESULTS: Compared to healthy controls skin biopsies showed: (i) non-length-dependent loss of intraepidermal nerve fibres (P < 0.01) and loss of MCs (P < 0.01); (ii) reduced (P < 0.01) density of pilomotor nerves involving cholinergic and noradrenergic fibres and (iii) a reduced (P < 0.01) vascular bed. Autonomic nerve and dermal vessel densities were higher in patients with higher disease progression rate (P < 0.01). Moreover, we observed signs of nerve regeneration coexisting with nerve degeneration and increased complexity of the dermal vessels. In patients with posttraumatic spinal cord injury, the density of intraepidermal nerve fibres, pilomotor nerves and of the vascular bed did not differ from controls (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated a cutaneous sensory and autonomic denervation in ALS and a previously undescribed relationship between autonomic and vascular involvement that appeared to be linked to the disease progression rate.

A multi-center, multinational age- and gender-adjusted normative dataset for immunofluorescent intraepidermal nerve fiber density at the distal leg.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Quantification of intraepidermal nerve fibers (IENFs) in skin biopsies is now the tool of choice to diagnose small fiber neuropathies. An adequate normative dataset, necessary to assess normality cutoffs, is available for brightfield microscopy but not for immunofluorescence. METHODS: Intraepidermal nerve fiber density data in distal leg skin samples processed with immunofluorescence were collected from 528 healthy individuals from four experienced laboratories worldwide. In all laboratories skin samples were collected, processed and analyzed according to standard procedures. Quantile regression analysis was employed to tailor the fit of the 5° percentile as the normal cutoff value and to test and measure the effect of age, gender, body mass index, race, biopsy site (lateral distal lower leg or medial posterior mid-calf) and participating laboratory as possible influential variables. RESULTS: Age, gender and biopsy site showed an independent linear correlation with IENF density. For each decade the 5° quantile IENF cutoff showed a 0.54 fibers/mm decrease, whilst females exhibited a 1.0 fiber/mm cutoff greater than males. Compared to the lateral distal lower leg, biopsies from the calf showed a 3.4 fibers/mm lower 5° percentile cutoff, documenting a variation linked by site. CONCLUSIONS: An age- and gender-adjusted normative dataset for IENF density at the lateral distal lower leg obtained with indirect immunofluorescence is presented for the first time by sharing data from four experienced laboratories worldwide. This dataset can be used as reference for laboratories processing skin biopsies with this technique.

Small fiber neuropathy in the chronic phase of Chagas disease: a case report.

We describe the occurrence of small fiber neuropathy in a patient affected by Chagas disease in the indeterminate phase. After the exclusion of all the possible etiologies of small fiber neuropathy, the disorder was considered related to Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Although a peripheral involvement has been described in Chagas disease, this is the first report of a selective involvement of small fibers.

Absent innervation of skin and sweat glands in congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis.

OBJECTIVES: A case of a 10-year-old girl with congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis (CIPA) is reported. METHODS AND RESULTS: Parents referred several hyperpyretic episodes without sweating occurring since birth, and insensitivity to pain, noticed when the child was 2 years old. Her body had many bruises and scars, bone fractures and signs of self-mutilation. Neurological examination was normal except for insensitivity to pain. Her IQ was 52. Electrical and tactile sensory nerve conduction velocities were normal. The patient was unable to detect thermal stimuli. Histamine injection evoked a wheal but not a flare; pilocarpine by iontophoresis did not induce sweat. Microneurography showed neural activity from A-beta sensory fibers while nociceptive and skin sympathetic C fiber nerve activity was absent. No small myelinated fibers and very rare unmyelinated fibers were found in the sural nerve. Immunohistochemistry showed a lack of nerve fibers in the epidermis and only few hypotrophic and uninnervated sweat glands in the dermis. CONCLUSIONS: The lack of innervation of the skin (C and A-delta fibers) appears to be the morphological basis of insensitivity to pain and anhidrosis, and is consistent with the loss of unmyelinated and small myelinated fibers in the sural nerve biopsy.

Is Ross syndrome a dysautonomic disorder only? An electrophysiologic and histologic study.

OBJECTIVE: To define the involvement of peripheral nerve fibers in Ross syndrome. METHODS: Mechanical pain perception, tactile and thermal thresholds on hand, foot dorsum, thigh, median nerve orthodromic sensory conduction velocity (SCV) and motor conduction velocity (MCV), sural nerve antidromic SCV, peroneal nerve MCV, H-reflex, F-wave, median, tibial nerve somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs), perioral, hand CO(2) laser late (LEPs) and ultralate evoked potentials, sympathetic skin response (SSRs), cardiovascular, Minor sweat, silastic imprint, histamine, photopletysmographic and pupil pilocarpine tests, cutaneous innervation immunohistochemical techniques were studied in 3 patients with Ross syndrome. RESULTS: Quantitative sensory testing showed altered results in patients 1 and 2, and patient 3 had a slight impairment of mechanical pain perception. Nerve conduction, except for a median nerve distal reduction of sensory conduction in patient 1, F-wave and SSEP findings were normal; H-reflex was absent at rest in all patients. Hand LEPs were absent in patient 2, ultralate potentials were absent in patients 1 and 2. Skin biopsy showed a disease duration related reduction of unmyelinated and myelinated sensory fibers and a lack of unmyelinated autonomic fibers in all patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that Ross syndrome is a degenerative disorder involving progressive sudomotor fibers, and then epidermal sensory unmyelinated and myelinated fibers.

Soluble interleukin-2 receptor and soluble CD8 molecules in cerebrospinal fluid and serum of patients with multiple sclerosis.

The purpose of this study was to analyse soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R) and soluble CD8 (sCD8) molecules in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum of 18 patients with definite multiple sclerosis (MS) and of 16 with noninflammatory neurologic diseases (NIND). All MS patients suffered from an exacerbation of the relapsing-remitting form of the disease within one month before examination. The mean serum levels of sIL-2R and sCD8 in the MS patients were not significantly different from those of NIND patients. Only one patient with MS had detectable sIL-2R in the CSF. CSF sCD8 was detectable in 10 of 18 MS patients and in 1 of 16 NIND patients. Our data indicate that the CSF and serum sIL-2R concentrations do not correlate with the disease activity. Conversely, increased levels of sCD8 only in the CSF of MS patients support the hypothesis of an intrathecal activation of CD8+ cells in MS. We think that CSF sCD8 can be a useful marker for the presence of activated T cells in the central nervous system.

Possible role of transforming growth factor-beta in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum levels of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) were evaluated in ten patients with definite multiple sclerosis (MS) of the relapsing-remitting type. CSF TGF-beta levels of MS patients in remission were significantly (p < 0.01) higher than of MS patients in active phase, and there was a significant inverse correlation (p < 0.05) between TGF-beta and slCAM-1 levels in the CSF of patients in both remitting and relapsing type. This is consistent with a possible down-regulation of TGF-beta on ICAM-1 expression and suggests a possible synthesis in the central nervous system of TGF-beta.

A new device to quantify tactile sensation in neuropathy.

OBJECTIVE: To devise a rapid, sensitive method to quantify tactile threshold of finger pads for early detection and staging of peripheral neuropathy and for use in clinical trials. METHODS: Subjects were 166 healthy controls and 103 patients with, or at risk for, peripheral neuropathy. Subjects were screened by questionnaire. The test device, the Bumps, is a checkerboard-like smooth surface with 12 squares; each square encloses 5 colored circles. The subject explores the circles of each square with the index finger pad to locate the one circle containing a small bump. Bumps in different squares have different heights. Detection threshold is defined as the smallest bump height detected. In some subjects, a 3-mm skin biopsy from the tested finger pad was taken to compare density of Meissner corpuscles (MCs) to bump detection thresholds. RESULTS: The mean (±SEM) bump detection threshold for control subjects was 3.3 ± 0.10 µm. Threshold and test time were age related, older subjects having slightly higher thresholds and using more time. Mean detection threshold of patients with neuropathy (6.2 ± 0.35 µm) differed from controls (p < 0.001). A proposed threshold for identifying impaired sensation had a sensitivity of 71% and specificity of 74%. Detection threshold was higher when MC density was decreased. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary studies suggest that the Bumps test is a rapid, sensitive, inexpensive method to quantify tactile sensation of finger pads. It has potential for early diagnosis of tactile deficiency in subjects suspected of having neuropathy, for staging degree of tactile deficit, and for monitoring change over time.

Quantification of pilomotor nerves: a new tool to evaluate autonomic involvement in diabetes.

OBJECTIVES: Quantification of the complex, autonomic networks in the skin is difficult. Although sporadic attempts focusing mainly on sudomotor plexus have been reported, an easy and reliable method of quantification has not yet been made available. We developed a method to quantify pilomotor nerve fibers (PNFs), which, compared to sudomotor nerves, have a less complex pattern. We used this procedure on a population of normal and diabetic subjects, and propose it as a new tool to study cutaneous autonomic nerves. METHODS: Skin biopsies were performed from thigh and distal leg in 20 diabetic patients and 20 age- and sex-matched controls. Samples were processed applying indirect immunofluorescence and using pan-neuronal and selective markers for cholinergic and noradrenergic fibers. Pilomotor nerve fiber density was blindly calculated on single 2-µm optical sections selected from confocal z-stacks. Interobserver and intraobserver reliability was evaluated. Results were compared with values obtained by 2 other methods that explored PNFs more extensively. Pilomotor nerve fibers density was compared to epidermal nerve fiber (ENF) density, to pilocarpine-activated sweat gland density, and to the severity of neuropathy as assessed by the modified total neuropathy score. RESULTS: A significant loss of PNFs was found in diabetic subjects' thigh and leg. PNFs density did not correlate with ENF density, disease duration, or total neuropathy score. Noradrenergic PNFs correlated instead with sweating impairment. CONCLUSIONS: A reliable assessment of PNF density is possible. When studying cutaneous innervation, PNF quantification should be done to gain information on autonomic nerves in addition to somatic nerves.

Evaluation of sudomotor function in diabetes using the dynamic sweat test.

BACKGROUND: The study of sudomotor function represents a useful tool to evaluate autonomic disorders. Currently available tests allow either the measurement of sweat output from the whole body or selected small skin locations over time, or quantification of the number and size of sweat drops at a fixed time after stimulation. We devised a dynamic sweat test (DST) that measures at the same time sweat gland density, distribution of active glands, and sweat rate, and applied it to the evaluation of sudomotor function in diabetes. METHODS: The DST was used to evaluate sweating in the forearm of 14 asymptomatic diabetic subjects and 14 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Distal leg was also tested in 7 patients and 7 controls. The formation of the imprint of pilocarpine-induced sweating was recorded by a digital video camera through a cornstarch-powdered transparent tape used as a contrast-enhancing device. Mean sweat output per gland and per skin area and sweat gland density per cm(2) were evaluated. RESULTS: We observed a significant reduction of sweating in diabetic subjects as compared to controls; sweat gland density per cm(2) (59.7 +/- 18.6 vs 83.7 +/- 17.3; p < 0.05) and mean sweat output (nL/min) per gland (4.7 +/- 0.7 vs 8.3 +/- 2.7; p = 0.01) and per skin area (261 +/- 100 vs 645 +/- 296; p = 0.01) were reduced in the lower limb. Values for the forearm were not significantly different from controls. CONCLUSIONS: Dynamic sweat test is an easy-to-perform, informative method to study sudomotor function. It provides the ability to detect subtle functional changes occurring in the early stages of diabetic neuropathy.

Generalised anhidrosis: different lesion sites demonstrated by microneurography and skin biopsy.

Generalised anhidrosis (GA) shows a uniform clinical picture whether the pathogenesis involves intrinsic abnormalities of sweat glands or postganglionic sympathetic cholinergic nerve dysfunction. We describe two patients who presented intolerance to heat and anhidrosis. In the first patient, symptoms started at 33 years of age, and were associated with absent tendon reflexes and a mydriatic right pupil unreactive to light. The other patient had been unable to sweat since birth. GA was diagnosed on the basis of clinical findings and thermoregulatory tests. Microneurography and morphological analysis of the skin and its innervation disclosed a different lesion site underlying GA in the two patients, and distinguished between a postganglionic autonomic nerve fibre lesion and sweat gland dysfunction.

Age-related risk factors for ischemic stroke in Italian men.

We evaluated the age-related stroke risk factors in 164 Italian male patients with a diagnosis of first-ever ischemic stroke. Based on the age, we divided the patients into two groups: 42 patients ranging in age from 40 to 55 years, and 122 patients ranging in age from 56 to 75 years. For each case, an age-matched control without a history or symptoms indicating vascular disease was randomly selected from hospital patients. Information were obtained on the various risk factors. Univariate analysis showed that for the younger patients high systolic blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, hypertriglyceridemia, smoking and family history of ischemic stroke were significantly related to stroke. In the older patients, high diastolic blood pressure and smoking had a strong association with stroke. Multivariate analysis showed that high systolic blood pressure, hypertriglyceridemia, smoking and family history of stroke remained significantly and independently associated with stroke in patients up to the age of 55 years. Among patients 56 years or older, only high systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and smoking were significant predictors of stroke. In conclusion, the sets of factors associated with the risk of stroke among young and old male patients appear to be different.

Cytokines in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis.

The authors evaluate the involvement of various cytokines (interleukin-1, interleukin-2, interleukin-4, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha and gamma-interferon) in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. The cytokines might participate in nervous tissue damage by promoting demyelination and oligodendrocyte injury or by enhancing local immune response. In addition, several authors reported increased levels of some cytokines in serum and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with multiple sclerosis. These findings suggest that cytokines can play a significant role in the immunopathogenesis of the disease.