Major Climate risks and Adaptation Strategies of Smallholder Farmers in Coastal Bangladesh.

Rural households in South Asia's coastal deltas face numerous livelihood challenges, including risks posed by climatic variability and extreme weather events. This study examines major climate risks, farmers' adaptation strategies, and the factors affecting the choice of those strategies using data collected from 630 households in southwestern coastal Bangladesh. Farmers identified cyclones, excessive rain and flooding, and salinity as direct climate risks. Increased crop diseases/pests and livestock diseases were perceived as indirect risks resulting from climatic variability. Farmers used multiple adaptation strategies against those risks such as modifications in farm management, use of savings and borrowing funds from family and neighbors, and periodically reducing household food consumption. Off-farm employment and seeking assistance from governmental as well as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were also common adaptation strategies. The results show that male-headed households are more likely to change farming practices and reduce consumption compared with female-headed households that conversely tended to take assistance from NGOs as an adaptation strategy. Ownership of land and livestock, as well as farmers' prior exposure to climate change and educational training, also had a significant effect on the choice of adaptation strategy. Therefore, development interventions and policies that aimed at improving resource endowment and training to farmers on climatic risks and their adaptation strategies can help minimize the impact of climatic risks.

Gender differentiated small-scale farm mechanization in Nepal hills: An application of exogenous switching treatment regression.

Farm mechanization among smallholder farming systems in developing countries is emerging as a viable option to off-set the effects of labor out-migration and shortages that undermine agricultural productivity. However, there is limited empirical literature on gender and farm mechanization. This study assesses the impacts of the gender of household heads on mini-tiller adoption in the hills of Nepal, using an exogenous switching treatment regression model. Our findings reveal that there is a significant gender gap in mini-tiller adoption between male-headed households (MH-HHs) and female-headed households (FH-HHs). Compared to MH-HHs, the mini-tiller adoption rate is significantly lower among the FH-HHs, and a large amount of unobserved heterogeneity is deriving this difference. Moreover, when MH-HHs and FH-HHs have similar observed attributes, the mini-tiller adoption rate among the food insecure FH-HHs is higher than in the food secure group. The gender-differentiated mini-tiller adoption rate can be minimized primarily by enhancing market access. Findings suggest that farm mechanization policies and programs targeted to the FH-HHs can reduce the gender-differentiated adoption gap in Nepal and similar hill production agro-ecologies in South Asia, which will enhance the farm yield and profitability.

Scale-appropriate mechanization impacts on productivity among smallholders: Evidence from rice systems in the mid-hills of Nepal.

Smallholder farmers in the mid-hills of Nepal are facing an acute labor shortage due to out-migration which, in general, has affected the capacity to achieve timely crop establishment, harvest, and inter-cultural operations. These effects are more visible in the case of labor-intensive crops such as rice and promoting higher levels of rural mechanization has emerged as the primary policy response option. Nevertheless, quantitative evidence for the ability of mechanization to offset the adverse effects of shortages increasing labor prices in these systems is largely absent. This study investigates the impacts associated with adoption of mini-tillers (5 to 9 horsepower) for land preparation on smallholder rice productivity in the mid-hills of Nepal. We use an endogenous switching regression that accounts for both observed and unobserved sources of heterogeneity between mini-tiller adopters and non-adopters. Findings demonstrate that rising on-farm rural wage rates and an emerging decline in draft animal availability are driving adoption of the mini-tiller. Among users, the mini-tiller increased rice productivity by 1,110 kg/ha (27%). Further, regression results suggest that mini-tiller non-adopters would be able to increase their rice productivity by 1,250 kg/ha (26%) if they adopt. Moreover, our analysis revealed that very small farms (≤0.25 ha) that adopt mini-tillers are benefited the most in terms of gains in rice productivity. These findings support policies that favor the expansion of small-scale mechanization in the hill production ecologies of South Asia and highlight the need to foster the emergence of an associated service economy that will permit smallholders access to capital-intensive machinery such as the mini-tiller.

Do market shocks generate gender-differentiated impacts? Policy implications from a quasi-natural experiment in Bangladesh.

Using information collected from two rounds of household income and expenditure surveys (HIES 2005 and 2010) in Bangladesh, this study examines the gender-differentiated impacts of the commodity price hikes in 2008 on food and non-food consumption behavior based on the sex of the household head. Applying the difference-in-difference estimation method in a quasi-natural experiment setting, this study demonstrates that, in general, commodity price hikes more adversely affect female-headed households. In 2010, they reduced expenditures on food and non-food items, and particularly cereal, non-cereal, and education expenditures, more than male-headed households did. This study also shows that the impacts of commodity price hikes were lower on the female-headed households headed by educated females as well as those who owned larger pieces of land and received remittances. These subsets were not affected by the commodity price shocks as examined in 2010. The findings strongly suggest that the provision of both human and physical capital is instrumental in developing countries to empower female-headed households to enhance their buffering capacity to withstand economic shocks.

Gender differences in the adoption of agricultural technology: The case of improved maize varieties in southern Ethiopia.

This study explores the role of gender-based decision-making in the adoption of improved maize varieties. The primary data were collected in 2018 from 560 farm households in Dawuro Zone, Ethiopia, and were comparatively analyzed across gender categories of households: male decision-making, female decision-making and joint decision-making, using a double-hurdle model. The results show that the intensity of improved maize varieties adopted on plots managed by male, female, and joint decision-making households are significantly different. This effect diminishes in the model when we take other factors into account. Using the gender of the heads of households and agricultural decision-maker, the current study did not find significant evidence of gender difference in the rate and intensity of adoption of improved maize varieties. The intensity of adoption of improved maize varieties is lower for female-headed households where decisions are made jointly by men and women, compared to the male-headed households where decisions are made jointly. As the economic status is a key driver of adoption of improved maize varieties, it is recommended that the policies and programs that aim at developing and disseminating quality maize seeds in southern Ethiopia should emphatically support economically less endowed but more gender egalitarian joint decision-making households, especially female-headed ones.

Smallholder farmers' willingness to pay for scale-appropriate farm mechanization: Evidence from the mid-hills of Nepal.

This paper analyzes smallholder farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for the purchase of scale-appropriate farm mechanization in the hill ecologies of Nepal using the case of mini-tiller technology: a small, 5-7 horsepower two-wheel tractor primarily used for agricultural land preparation. Using primary survey data from 628 randomly-selected households, we find that farm size, local wage rates, out-migration, access to credit services, and associations with agricultural cooperatives positively influence the WTP for mini-tillers while the number of draft animals owned negatively influence the WTP for mini-tillers. On average, farmers were willing to pay 31% less than the actual price of a mini-tiller. Results also exhibited a heterogeneous demand in which the lowest quartile farm size households, typically the poorest farm households, were willing to pay 26% less for the mini-tiller than the top quartile of farms. In the context of labor scarcity and rising rural wages, agricultural policy on farm mechanization in Nepal should aim to prioritize small farms through robust service provision models in order to increase the level of farm mechanization in the country.

Consumption of food away from home in Bangladesh: Do rich households spend more?

While consumption of food away from home (FAFH) is an established phenomenon among households in the developed countries, FAFH is a growing phenomenon in many middle-income and rapidly growing developing countries. Although, studies are available on the factors affecting consumption of FAFH in developed countries, there is a paucity of such studies in developing countries. This study examines households' choice of and expenditures on FAFH. We used information from Bangladeshi households and applied a double-hurdle regression model estimation procedure. Findings show that, in general, rich households are spending proportionately less on FAFH and, over time, the trend is continuing. Although households with female members who work in the non-farm sector are more likely to consume FAFH, educated household heads and spouses, and particularly urban households are less likely to consume and spend on FAFH. As the problem of food adulteration by dishonest sellers is rampant in Bangladesh, perhaps it discourages rich, urban and households headed by educated heads and spouses to consume and spend more on FAFH. Based on the findings, some points of interventions are also prescribed in this study.

Enhancing Smallholder Access to Agricultural Machinery Services: Lessons from Bangladesh.

Resource poor smallholders in developing countries often lack access to capital goods such as farm machinery. Enabling adequate access through machinery services can thereby significantly contribute to food security and farm incomes. At the core of the service provision model is the lead farmer, who makes the initial investment in agricultural machinery, and provides services to others on a fee-for-service basis. Profiling the lead farmers can thereby provide important lessons and scaling implications. The present paper provides a case study of Bangladesh, using primary data to characterise the lead farmers. General education, credit availability and risk taking attitude play significant roles in whether or not a farm household will be a lead farmer in Bangladesh.

Mediating role of social disengagement and loneliness in the nexus between functional health and mental well-being in older individuals.

Few studies have focused sufficiently on the intricate link between functional health and depression among older people aged 60 and above in India. Therefore, the current study investigates the association between functional health and depression among older Indian adults through the mediating role of social disengagement and loneliness and the moderating role of living arrangements using recent data from the Longitudinal Aging Study in India (LASI: 2017-2018). Composite International Diagnostic Interview-Short Form (CIDI-SF) for depression, the Activities of Daily Living (ADL) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) for functional health, and the indoor/outdoor activities, visits, and religious events for social disengagement were used. The feelings of loneliness and living arrangements were measured using single-item questions and surveys/interviews of household members. Bivariate analysis, logistic regression, and a Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Model were adopted. The results show that older persons with functional health had 1.85 times higher odds of depression; similarly, those not engaging in social activities and experiencing loneliness were more likely to feel depressed. Living with someone was negatively linked to depression. A significant moderation by living arrangements in the functional health-depression relationship was also observed. The results also indicate significant mediating roles of social disengagement and loneliness, with 22.0% and 3.08% mediation effects, respectively. Therefore, this study recommends the provision of housing and social interaction among older people.

Geospatial and environmental determinants of stunting, wasting, and underweight: Empirical evidence from rural South and Southeast Asia.

OBJECTIVE: Child malnutrition, comprising of undernutrition and obesity, is a global concern with severe implications for survival, leading to acute and chronic diseases that adversely affect the productivity of individuals and society. Asia shoulders the greatest burden, with 7 out of 10 undernourished children residing in the region. Despite the decline in global child stunting, particularly in Asia, its prevalence remains significant. In 2017, an estimated 151 million children under five experienced stunting, and an additional 38 million were overweight, with Africa and Asia accounting for 25% and 46% of the global figures, respectively. Therefore, this paper aims to analyze the geospatial and environmental determinants of undernutrition in rural South and Southeast Asia. METHODS: To explore the geospatial and environmental determinants of undernutrition (stunting, wasting, and underweight), we use Poisson regression and the data from recent rounds of the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Cambodia, and Timor-Leste. RESULTS: This study found a high prevalence of stunting, wasting, and underweight among children aged 0 to 59 months in rural areas of South and Southeast Asia, with considerable variation between countries and clusters/primary sampling units. Results show a positive association between child malnutrition and factors such as maternal illiteracy, unsafe drinking water, and dirty cooking fuel in South and Southeast Asia. Children from impoverished households in India, Pakistan, and Cambodia were disproportionately affected. In addition to socio-economic factors, climatic risks such as temperature increase and rainfall variations also emerged as important determinants of child malnutrition in India, Bangladesh, and Timor-Leste. CONCLUSIONS: This paper emphasizes the role of environmental and climatic factors on child nutrition, underscoring their significance regardless of socio-economic conditions. As the impacts of climate change continue to intensify, and agrarian societies bear the brunt, these factors will play a critical role in shaping child nutritional outcomes. Thus, amid growing climate change, nutritional security should be prioritized, considering the spatial domain and targeting climate distress areas along with other socio-economic and demographic aspects.

Factors influencing household and women's dietary diversity in migrant households in central Nepal.

Food security and dietary diversity, defined as providing either physical (availability) or economic (accessibility) access to food, are linked with access to and control over productive resources and is a highly-gendered phenomenon. In Nepal, labor out-migration has increased household income and may have increased people's ability to access diverse food either by increasing investment in agriculture or purchasing various food items from the market. However, the relationship between household dietary improvement and labor out-migration is complex. Drawing on a survey of 1,053 migrant households in three agroecological regions of Nepal, this paper disentangles this complex phenomenon by showing how household dietary diversity and women's dietary diversity are influenced by biophysical, social, economic, and cultural factors. The influence of the amount of remittances, land abandonment, and women confined to the house by household chores are some factors that policy makers should consider seriously in designing gender-sensitive nutrition policies. The expansion of women's agency contributes to enhancing dietary diversity and specifically women's dietary diversity at the household level; however, how these factors determine an individual's dietary diversity depends on intrahousehold dynamics and relations.

Realising rural economic transformation: Pathways to inclusive and sustainable prosperity in post-COVID-19 Asia.

The world is adjusting to regain control over direct economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. This adjustment is occurring whilst global collective action is also gearing up to tackle climate change, avert biodiversity collapse and redress unsustainable growth practices that featured in pre-Covid era global economic activity for decades. COVID-19 pandemic experience since December 2019 has been a period of pronounced anxiety and inspiration. Despite the angst of widespread calamity, and the loss of over six million lives, a coordinated global effort helped contain the impacts well short of initial predictions. Progress toward eliminating poverty, the central goal in rural economic transformation, has been set back by decades. The strength in organising - through social and business processes - marked the resilience endured. The recovery is patchy and uneven across individual nations, and the medium-term prospects remain contingent on the efficacy of funding essential human services and clear market bottlenecks. Bridging capacity constraints across the rural-urban continuum also remain a need to ease the regulatory burden as the world tackles widespread externalities of the past to create new growth opportunities. In this special issue, emerging and established academics from the Asian region and beyond, draw insights from research and analysis on the challenges facing policy makers, businesses, and households in raising living standards and inspiring the pursuit of individual and social affluence during these uncertain but opportune times.

Household fuel choices and consumption intensity in Pakistan: evidence from HIES data 2001-2019.

The adoption of clean energy (electricity and gas) for domestic purposes has increased over the decades, yet the share of clean energy in total energy consumption remains low. Therefore, this study analyses seven rounds of HIES surveys in Pakistan collected between 2001 to 2019 to understand the energy use patterns and why clean fuel consumption is low among households that have already adopted clean energy. To this end, the present study applied the Probit and Tobit models to examine the determinants of using different fuel types and their consumption intensity. The results show that female-headed households are more likely to adopt and consume more clean fuels such as electricity and gas. Moreover, education, wealth, and urban location have a positive association with clean fuel adoption and consumption. The study also finds that age and household size have a non-linear impact on clean fuel consumption intensity. The study recommends policies to achieve SDG 7 by improving accessibility and affordability by increasing income and the supply of clean fuel. Further, it emphasizes enhancing the knowledge about the benefit of using clean energy through education programs.

Farmers' use of climate change adaptation strategies and their impacts on food security in Kenya.

Climate change threatens the sustainability of food production among farmers in Kenya who depend on rain-fed agriculture. To minimize the negative impacts of climate change, farmers have sought to adopt different adaptation strategies. This study investigates factors influencing farmers' choice of climate change adaptation strategies and associated effects on their food security in Kenya using data collected from 540 farmers from six counties. A multivariate probit, censored least absolute deviation (CLAD), and propensity score matching (PSM) models were employed to identify the determinants in the farmers' choice of climate change adaptation strategies, the number of adaptation strategies adopted, and the effect of climate change adaptation strategies on their food security, respectively. Results show that planting drought-tolerant crop varieties (55%), growing diversified crops (34%), growing early maturing crops (22%), and diversifying the sources of household income (18%) were the four major adaptation strategies used by the farmers in the study area. Younger farmers and those with higher education levels are more likely to use these climate change adaptation practices. The number of adaptation strategies used was positively associated with male farmers, education level, family size, land size, farm income, extension contact, training, and information access. The farmers who adopt one adaptation strategy have higher food security status (approximately 7-11%) than those who do not. If they adopt two adaptation strategies, their food security status increases by approximately 11-14%; if they adopt three adaptation strategies, their food security status increases by nearly 12-15%; and if they adopt four adaptation practices, their food security status increases by about 14-18%, compared to those who do not adopt any strategy. Thus, the farmers' climate change adaptation practices have positive food security effects in Kenya according to the number of adaptation strategies adopted.

Prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension among the adults in South Asia: A multinomial logit model.

Hypertension has been the most common non-communicable disease in low and middle-income countries for the past two decades, increasing cardiovascular and renal disease risk. Urbanization, aging, dietary and lifestyle changes, high illiteracy rates, poor access to health facilities, poverty, high costs of drugs, and social stress have contributed to an increase in the prevalence of hypertension in developing countries. Nonetheless, little is known about the comprehensive risk factors associated with prehypertension and hypertension among economically active adult populations of South Asia, such as India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. This paper uses the Demographic and Health Survey data of 637,396 individuals from India (2019-21), 8,924 from Nepal (2016), and 8,613 from Bangladesh (2017-18) to examine the prevalence and driver of prehypertension and hypertension. We analyze the prevalence of prehypertension because it leads to hypertension and is directly related to cardiovascular disease, and many people live with it for prolonged periods without realizing it. The paper finds, among other things, that the prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension among adults (18-49 years) is 43.2 and 14.9% in India, 35.1% and 19.8% in Bangladesh, and 25.2% and 13.8% in Nepal, respectively. Better educated, wealthy individuals living in urban areas of developing economies in the South Asian region are more likely to have prehypertension and hypertension. The paper suggests the urgent need to launch preventive programs to reduce prehypertension before it develops to be hypertension as a precautionary measure. Thus, such measures shall help to prevent hypertension, thereby improving the overall wellbeing of individuals and families.

Understanding climate-risk coping strategies among farm households: Evidence from five countries in Eastern and Southern Africa.

Climate change is having a catastrophic impact on the livelihoods of farm households in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA). This study employs comprehensive data obtained in 2018 from 4351 farm households in five countries to appraise the key climate hazards experienced by farmers, the risk coping methods adopted, and factor influencing the use of these methods. Although droughts, floods, hailstorms, and crop pests/diseases are major climate-induced risks in ESA, droughts are predominant in all these countries. Farm households in ESA have adopted various strategies to address climate risk, which includes changing farming practices, reducing consumption, using savings and borrowing, and seeking new employment. Farming families headed by a female, married, or an elderly member opt to change farming methods and decrease consumption, whereas they are less inclined to look for alternate livelihood options. Farming families with higher livestock endowments commonly use savings or borrow and are unlikely to change farming methods, decrease consumption, and search for alternate employment. Better-off families tend to change farming methods but are unlikely to adopt other risk coping options. Farming families with non-farm livelihood options are unlikely to change farming methods, use savings/borrowings, or decrease consumption, whereas they tend to search for alternate employment. Training on agriculture and economic status are crucial for climate change adaptation in these regions. Findings exhibit substantial differences among the study countries regarding the adoption of coping strategies. Compared to farmers in Kenya, farmers in other countries change agricultural methods to cope with climate shocks. Ethiopian farmers, compared to their Kenyan counterparts, decrease consumption to deal with climate risks, whereas, farmers in Tanzania, Malawi, and Mozambique are less likely to use this option. Similarly, the likelihood of seeking alternative employment as a risk coping strategy is lower among Ethiopian farmers, while it is higher among the farmers in other countries.

Prevalence of household food insecurity in East Africa: Linking food access with climate vulnerability.

The prevalence of food insecurity is much higher in East Africa than in other parts of the world. Climate change and associated variability are important contributors to food insecurity in the region. Using primary data collected in 2018/19 from Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, this study examines the links between the prevalence of household food insecurity (the access to food dimension) and vulnerability to climate change in East Africa. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) was constructed to measure the prevalence of household food insecurity, and an ordered probit econometrics model was used to investigate the factors affecting the prevalence rates. The aggregate results show that 52% of the total sampled households in the region were food-secure; 15% and 26% were mildly food-secure and moderately food-insecure, respectively; and the remaining 7% were severely food-insecure. The ordered probit results suggest that exposure to climate change extremes and crop losses caused by these extremes significantly contribute to the prevalence of food insecurity across countries in East Africa. The results also indicate that households' adaptive capacity plays a significant role in reducing the prevalence of food insecurity. The demographic/human, social, financial, physical, and natural assets/capital of the household also play a significant role in reducing household-level food insecurity in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania.

Gender Differences in Nutritional Intake among Rural-Urban Migrants in China.

Due to rapid economic growth and urbanization, China has witnessed massive migration from rural to urban areas and significant changes in food habits and nutritional intake. This paper empirically examines the factors affecting nutritional intake of 7752 rural-urban migrants and its gender effects, using the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) data from 1991 to 2011. The descriptive results show that female migrants (FMs) have lower energy intake but have higher proportions of energy from protein and fat than male migrants (MMs), indicating that FMs have a better nutritional quality. The regression results show that the calorie-income elasticities are 0.014 for MMs and 0.018 for FMs. A remarkable positive effect of income on nutritional quality is found for FMs. Employment in non-farm sectors and the community environmental sanitation have a significant increase in calorie intake and nutritional quality, while non-farm employment presents a negative and significant effect on FMs' calorie intake. Modern market significantly positively affects migrants' energy intake from protein, thereby improving their nutritional quality. The exogenous switching treatment effect regression results display a significant gender effect on energy intake and its share from protein for migrants, while there is no significant gender effect when it comes to the share of energy from fat.

The impact of adopting stress-tolerant maize on maize yield, maize income, and food security in Tanzania.

Productivity growth emanating from scientific advances offered by biotechnology and other plant breeding initiatives offers great promise for meeting the growing food demand worldwide. This justifies investments in agricultural research and development that have led to the development of stress-tolerant maize varieties (STMVs) in Africa. While most literature has documented the average impacts of STMVs on productivity, this paper is premised on the fact that benefits from technology adoption are not the same across household. The paper addresses this information gap by examining potential heterogeneity in yield, income, and food security benefits from of adopting STMVs using a sample of 720 maize-producing households from Tanzania. The dose-response continuous treatment effect method supported by an endogenous switching probit model was used to estimate the heterogenous impact of STMV adoption on the three outcomes of interest. Results show that, overall, the adoption of stress-tolerant maize varieties increased maize grain yield by about 1 ton/ha, maize income by about $62/ha. The adoption of STMVs also reduced the propensity to report mild, moderate, and severe food insecurity by 34%, 17%, and 6%, respectively. There are substantial idiosyncratic variations in the productivity, income, and food security effects depending on the scale of adoption, with a higher impact at lower dose levels of adoption. The heterogenous and pro-poor nature of STMV adoption is also revealed through nonparametric results showing higher productivity benefits among households that are less endowed with wealth and knowledge. These findings underscore the need for further scaling of stress-tolerant maize varieties for greater impact on the livelihoods of poor small-scale farmers in Tanzania.

Gender-based Decision Making in Marketing Channel Choice - Evidence of Maize Supply Chains in Southern Ethiopia.

We examine factors affecting the choice of marketing channels for maize among male, female, and joint decision-making farm households using data from households in Dawuro zone, southern Ethiopia. Econometric results suggest that female and joint decision-makers are more likely to sell maize to consumers or retailers in the main local market where the maize price is higher than to wholesale merchants directly from the farm. Individual decision-makers (male or female) who grow improved maize varieties are more likely to sell to wholesalers directly from the farm. This may be an indication of the effectiveness of joint decisions over individual decisions related to the market price. We also found that improved maize varieties distributed to farmers in the study area are of poor quality and that there is a lack of modern storage facilities so that farmers have to sell immediately after harvest during the lower price season. Thus, there is a need for policies promoting the distribution of high-quality maize seeds and encouraging investments in the establishment of modern maize storage facilities in the study area. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10745-021-00252-x.