Self-referential processing in anorexia nervosa.

OBJECTIVE: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious psychiatric illness associated with significant medical and psychiatric comorbidity and impairment. Theoretical models of AN and self-report studies suggest that negative self-evaluation (i.e., low self-esteem) is related to the development and maintenance of AN. The goal of this study was to extend findings from self-report methodology using a neurocognitive task that probes self-evaluation implicitly and explicitly. METHOD: We compared female adolescent and adult patients with AN (n = 35) and healthy controls (HC, n = 38) on explicit (i.e., endorsement of words as self-relevant), implicit (recall, recognition, reaction time), and composite (i.e., valence index, bias score, drift rates) indices of self-evaluation. We applied a drift-diffusion model to compute the drift rates, reflecting participants' decision-making process as to whether words were self-relevant. The association between self-evaluation indices and eating disorder severity was examined. RESULTS: There were significant Group × Condition interaction effects for all explicit and implicit measures (all p's ≤ .01), where the AN group endorsed, recalled, and recognized more negative relative to positive words than HC. The AN group had more negative valence index and bias scores, and slower drift rate away from negative words, reflecting more negative self-evaluation. The finding for recall was attenuated when individuals with depression were excluded. Measures of self-evaluation bias were not related to eating disorder severity. DISCUSSION: Using a neurocognitive approach that includes explicit and implicit indices of bias, results suggest that patients with AN have more negative self-evaluation. Due to the cross-sectional design, additional studies are needed to further evaluate directionality. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Negative self-evaluation/low self-esteem is thought to contribute to eating disorder symptoms. Findings of this study using a neurocognitive task to probe self-evaluation suggested that individuals with anorexia nervosa have more negative self-evaluation, reflected by endorsing and remembering more negative (than positive) words compared to healthy controls, and doing so faster. Targeting the construct of negative self-evaluation in treatment of AN may be warranted.

Autonomic indices and loss-of-control eating in adolescents: an ecological momentary assessment study.

BACKGROUND: Loss-of-control (LOC) eating commonly develops during adolescence, and it predicts full-syndrome eating disorders and excess weight gain. Although negative emotions and emotion dysregulation are hypothesized to precede and predict LOC eating, they are rarely examined outside the self-report domain. Autonomic indices, including heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV), may provide information about stress and capacity for emotion regulation in response to stress. METHODS: We studied whether autonomic indices predict LOC eating in real-time in adolescents with LOC eating and body mass index (BMI) ⩾70th percentile. Twenty-four adolescents aged 12-18 (67% female; BMI percentile mean ± standard deviation = 92.6 ± 9.4) who reported at least twice-monthly LOC episodes wore biosensors to monitor HR, HRV, and physical activity for 1 week. They reported their degree of LOC after all eating episodes on a visual analog scale (0-100) using a smartphone. RESULTS: Adjusting for physical activity and time of day, higher HR and lower HRV predicted higher self-reported LOC after eating. Parsing between- and within-subjects effects, there was a significant, positive, within-subjects association between pre-meal HR and post-meal LOC rating. However, there was no significant within-subjects effect for HRV, nor were there between-subjects effects for either electrophysiologic variable. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that autonomic indices may either be a marker of risk for subsequent LOC eating or contribute to LOC eating. Linking physiological markers with behavior in the natural environment can improve knowledge of illness mechanisms and provide new avenues for intervention.

Peer mentorship as an adjunct intervention for the treatment of eating disorders: A pilot randomized trial.

OBJECTIVE: Peer mentorship has been shown to be helpful for other mental health conditions, but it has been understudied for patients with eating disorders. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of peer mentorship for individuals with eating disorders by conducting a randomized controlled trial (RCT). TRIAL DESIGN: Parallel three-arm pilot RCT with 1:1:1 allocation to peer mentorship, social support mentorship (active comparison intervention), and waiting list. METHOD: Sixty outpatients with anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), or binge-eating disorder (BED) were randomly assigned to a condition. Outcome measures, including eating disorder symptoms and general psychopathology, were completed at baseline, mid-, and postintervention. RESULTS: Session attendance and acceptability ratings were higher in peer mentorship than social support mentorship. More participants in social support mentorship (39%) dropped out compared to peer mentorship (5%). In intent-to-treat analysis, peer mentorship showed greater reductions in body dissatisfaction and anxiety compared with both control groups. Compared with social support mentorship, peer mentorship had greater reductions in depression. Compared with waiting list, peer mentorship had greater reduction in binge eating days/week in patients with BN/BED and restriction days/week in patients with AN. Peer mentorship did not impact body mass index or reentry into higher level of care. DISCUSSION: This pilot RCT provides preliminary evidence that peer mentorship is effective for some cognitive and behavioral symptoms of eating disorders as an adjunct to outpatient treatment. Additional studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of peer mentorship in absence of treatment.

A randomized, comparative pilot trial of family-based interpersonal psychotherapy for reducing psychosocial symptoms, disordered-eating, and excess weight gain in at-risk preadolescents with loss-of-control-eating.

OBJECTIVE: Preadolescent loss-of-control-eating (LOC-eating) is a risk factor for excess weight gain and binge-eating-disorder. We evaluated feasibility and acceptability of a preventive family-based interpersonal psychotherapy (FB-IPT) program. FB-IPT was compared to family-based health education (FB-HE) to evaluate changes in children's psychosocial functioning, LOC-eating, and body mass. METHOD: A randomized, controlled pilot trial was conducted with 29 children, 8 to 13 years who had overweight/obesity and LOC-eating. Youth-parent dyads were randomized to 12-week FB-IPT (n = 15) or FB-HE (n = 14) and evaluated at post-treatment, six-months, and one-year. Changes in child psychosocial functioning, LOC-eating, BMI, and adiposity by dual-energy-X-ray-absorptiometry were assessed. Missing follow-up data were multiply imputed. RESULTS: FB-IPT feasibility and acceptability were indicated by good attendance (83%) and perceived benefits to social interactions and eating. Follow-up assessments were completed by 73% FB-IPT and 86% FB-HE at post-treatment, 60% and 64% at six-months, and 47% and 57% at one-year. At post-treatment, children in FB-IPT reported greater decreases in depression (95% CI -7.23, -2.01, Cohen's d = 1.23) and anxiety (95% CI -6.08, -0.70, Cohen's d = .79) and less odds of LOC-eating (95% CI -3.93, -0.03, Cohen's d = .38) than FB-HE. At six-months, children in FB-IPT had greater reductions in disordered-eating attitudes (95% CI -0.72, -0.05, Cohen's d = .66) and at one-year, tended to have greater decreases in depressive symptoms (95% CI -8.82, 0.44, Cohen's d = .69) than FB-HE. There was no difference in BMI gain between the groups. DISCUSSION: Family-based approaches that address interpersonal and emotional underpinnings of LOC-eating in preadolescents with overweight/obesity show preliminary promise, particularly for reducing internalizing symptoms. Whether observed psychological benefits translate into sustained prevention of disordered-eating or excess weight gain requires further study.

Real-time assessment of heart rate variability and loss of control eating in adolescent girls: A pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Studying physiologic underpinnings of loss-of-control (LOC) eating may inform its etiology and contribute to intervention efforts. We therefore examined temporal relationships between autonomic indices [heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV)] and LOC-eating in the natural environment. METHOD: For two days, adolescents (n = 17, 14.77 ± 1.55 years, BMI-Z 2.17 ± 0.48) with LOC-eating reported on LOC using an electronic device while HR and HRV were assessed continuously using Holter monitoring. RESULTS: Higher HR and lower HRV in the 30-minutes before eating were significantly associated with LOC-eating overall (p's < 0.001) and at the within-participants level (p's < 0.001), but not at the between-participants level (p's > 0.44). Examined categorically, HR was significantly higher, and HRV significantly lower, prior to high-LOC compared to low-LOC episodes (p's < 0.001). DISCUSSION: This pilot study suggests that LOC-eating may involve physiologic underpinnings. Additional research with larger samples is needed to further investigate this phenomenon.

Attentional bias to food cues in youth with loss of control eating.

Emerging data indicate that adults with binge eating may exhibit an attentional bias toward highly palatable foods, which may promote obesogenic eating patterns and excess weight gain. However, it is unknown to what extent youth with loss of control (LOC) eating display a similar bias. We therefore studied 76 youth (14.5 ± 2.3 years; 86.8% female; BMI-z 1.7 ± .73) with (n = 47) and without (n = 29) reported LOC eating. Following a breakfast to reduce hunger, youth participated in a computerized visual probe task of sustained attention that assessed reaction time to pairs of pictures consisting of high palatable foods, low palatable foods, and neutral household objects. Although sustained attentional bias did not differ by LOC eating presence and was unrelated to body weight, a two-way interaction between BMI-z and LOC eating was observed (p = .01), such that only among youth with LOC eating, attentional bias toward high palatable foods versus neutral objects was positively associated with BMI-z. These findings suggest that LOC eating and body weight interact in their association with attentional bias to highly palatable foods cues, and may partially explain the mixed literature linking attentional bias to food cues with excess body weight.

Using ecological momentary assessment to examine interpersonal and affective predictors of loss of control eating in adolescent girls.

OBJECTIVE: Pediatric loss of control (LOC) eating is predictive of partial- and full-syndrome binge eating disorder. The interpersonal model proposes that LOC eating is used to cope with negative mood states resulting from interpersonal distress, possibly on a momentary level. We therefore examined temporal associations between interpersonal problems, negative affect, and LOC eating among overweight adolescent girls using ecological momentary assessment (EMA). METHOD: Thirty overweight and obese (≥85th body mass index (BMI) percentile; BMI: M = 36.13, SD = 7.49 kg/m(2)) adolescent females (Age: M = 14.92, SD = 1.54 y; 60.0% African American) who reported at least two LOC episodes in the past month completed self-report momentary ratings of interpersonal problems, state affect, and LOC eating for 2 weeks. A series of 2-level multilevel models with centering within subjects was conducted. RESULTS: Between- and within-subjects interpersonal problems (p's < .05), but not between- (p = .12) or within- (p = .32) subjects negative affect predicted momentary LOC eating. At the between-subjects level, interpersonal problems significantly predicted increases in negative affect (p < 001). DISCUSSION: Naturalistic data lend support to the predictive value of interpersonal problems for LOC eating among adolescents. Interventions targeting interpersonal factors on a momentary basis may be useful during this developmental stage.

Puberty and the manifestations of loss of control eating in children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the manifestations of pediatric loss of control (LOC) eating at different stages of pubertal development. METHOD: Participants were a nonclinical sample of 468 youth (8-17 years). Physical examination determined pubertal stage. LOC eating and disordered eating attitudes were assessed with the Eating Disorder Examination. In a randomized crossover design, a subset (n = 244) ate ad libitum from two test meals designed to capture normal and LOC eating. RESULTS: There were no differences in the prevalence rates or frequency of reported LOC eating episodes across pubertal stages (ps ≥ 0.50). There were, however, puberty by LOC eating interactions in disordered eating attitudes and palatable food consumption (ps ≤ .05), even after adjusting for age and body composition. LOC eating was associated with elevated global disordered eating attitudes, weight concern, and shape concern in post-pubertal youth (ps ≤ .001), but not pre-pubertal youth (ps ≥ .49). In late-puberty, youth with LOC eating consumed less energy from protein (p < .001) and more from carbohydrate (p = .003) and snack-type foods (p = .02) than those without LOC eating, whereas endorsement of LOC eating in pre- or early-to-mid-puberty was not associated with differences in eating behavior (ps ≥ 0.20). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that puberty may be a critical risk period, when LOC eating behaviors in boys and girls may become accompanied by greater weight and shape concerns and more obesogenic food consumption patterns. Interventions for LOC eating during pre-puberty should be evaluated to determine if they are particularly beneficial for the prevention of exacerbated eating disorder psychopathology and adverse weight outcomes.

Interpersonal problem areas and alexithymia in adolescent girls with loss of control eating.

This study investigated the links among interpersonal problem areas, depression, and alexithymia in adolescent girls at high risk for excessive weight gain and binge eating disorder. Participants were 56 girls (Mage = 14.30, SD = 1.56; 53% non-Hispanic White) with a body mass index (BMI, kg/m(2)) between the 75th and 97th percentiles (MBMI z = 1.57, SD = 0.32). By design, all participants reported loss of control eating patterns in the past month. Adolescents were individually interviewed prior to participating in a group interpersonal psychotherapy obesity and eating disorder prevention program, termed IPT for the prevention of excessive weight gain (IPT-WG). Participants' interpersonal problem areas were coded by trained raters. Participants also completed questionnaires assessing depression and alexithymia. Primary interpersonal problem areas were categorized as interpersonal deficits [as defined in the eating disorders (ED) literature] (n = 29), role disputes (n = 22), or role transitions (n = 5). Girls with interpersonal deficits-ED had greater depressive symptoms and alexithymia than girls with role disputes (p's ≤ 0.01). However, girls with role transitions did not differ from girls with interpersonal deficits-ED or role disputes. Interpersonal problem area had an indirect association with depression via alexithymia; interpersonal deficits-ED were related to greater alexithymia, which in turn, was related to greater depressive symptoms (p = 0.01). Among girls at risk for excess weight gain and eating disorders, those with interpersonal deficits-ED appear to have greater distress as compared to girls with role disputes or role transitions. Future research is required to elucidate the impact of interpersonal problem areas on psychotherapy outcomes.

Pre-meal affective state and laboratory test meal intake in adolescent girls with loss of control eating.

Loss of control eating confers risk for excess weight gain and exacerbated disordered eating. Affect theory proposes that loss of control eating is used to cope with negative mood states. Self-report data suggest that negative affect may contribute to the etiology of loss of control eating, but this theory has not been well-tested using laboratory paradigms. We examined associations between pre-meal affective states and intake during a laboratory test meal. One-hundred and ten adolescent girls with reported loss of control eating whose body mass index fell between the 75th and 97th percentile for age and sex completed state mood ratings prior to a test-meal. Results indicated that pre-meal state negative affect was associated with greater carbohydrate and less protein consumption, as well as greater snack and dessert and less fruit and dairy intake. All girls experienced significant decreases in negative affect from pre- to post-meal, but intake during the meal was unassociated with post-meal affect. In support of affect theory, negative affective states reported among girls with loss of control may be a driving factor for increased energy-dense food intake, which may play a role in excess weight gain.

Heightened sensitivity to high-calorie foods in children at risk for obesity: insights from behavior, neuroimaging, and genetics.

Pediatric obesity is a major public health concern. Genetic susceptibility and increased availability of energy-dense food are known risk factors for obesity. However, the extent to which these factors jointly bias behavior and neural circuitry towards increased adiposity in children remains unclear. While undergoing fMRI, 108 children (ages 5-11y) performed a food-specific go/no-go task. Participants were instructed to either respond ("go") or inhibit responding ("no-go") to images of food or toys. Half of the runs depicted high-calorie foods (e.g., pizza) whereas the other half depicted low-calorie foods (e.g., salad). Children were also genotyped for a DNA polymorphism associated with energy intake and obesity (FTO rs9939609) to examine the influence of obesity risk on behavioral and brain responses to food. Participants demonstrated differences in behavioral sensitivity to high- and low-calorie food images depending on task demands. Participants were slower but more accurate at detecting high- (relative to low-) calorie foods when responding to a neutral stimulus (i.e., toys) and worse at detecting toys when responding to high-calorie foods. Inhibition failures were accompanied by salience network activity (anterior insula, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex), which was driven by false alarms to food images. Children at a greater genetic risk for obesity (dose-dependent model of the FTO genotype) demonstrated pronounced brain and behavioral relationships such that genetic risk was associated with heightened sensitivity to high-calorie food images and increased anterior insula activity. These findings suggest that high-calorie foods may be particularly salient to children at risk for developing eating habits that promote obesity.

The Role of Affective Instability in Loss of Control Eating in Youth with Overweight/Obesity Across Development: Findings from Two EMA Studies.

Affective instability is common during adolescence, but at high levels it is associated with a variety of internalizing and externalizing disorders, including eating disorders. Although most models focus on affective intensity as a mechanism for explaining eating disorders in adults, affective instability may be more developmentally relevant at predicting eating behaviors in youth. Using ecological momentary assessment, this manuscript explored the association between loss of control over eating (LOC), a key component of dysregulated eating in youth, and affective instability in youth with overweight/obesity in two separate studies, one with youth in middle childhood and early adolescence (Study 1: ages eight to 13) and one in youth in early through middle adolescence (Study 2: ages 12-17). Overall, there was no association between affective instability and LOC in Study 1, but in Study 2, age moderated the association between positive affective instability and LOC, such that greater between-person positive affective instability (i.e., relative to peers) was associated with lower average LOC for youth earlier in adolescence and higher average LOC for those later in adolescence. Negative affective instability was also associated with LOC in Study 2, such that on days when youth reported less within-person negative affective instability (i.e., relative to their own average), they also reported greater average LOC. Findings across the two studies indicate that the association between affective instability and LOC may not emerge until adolescence, and when it does, both positive and negative affective instability may be important to consider.

Early Course of Symptom Development in Anorexia Nervosa.

PURPOSE: Anorexia nervosa (AN) commonly begins in adolescence; however, detailed knowledge of symptom trajectories, including their temporal sequence, is less well elucidated. The purpose of the present study is to describe the onset and duration of disordered eating behaviors prior to a diagnosis of AN, examine concordance between child and parent report, and examine the relationships between timing of symptom onset and illness severity. METHODS: Seventy-one adolescents (ages 12-18 years) and their parents were interviewed about dieting, restriction, loss of control/binge eating, purging, excessive/compulsive exercise, weight history, and amenorrhea. Body mass index percentiles were calculated, and adolescents completed the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire. RESULTS: Restriction, being underweight, dieting, and excessive exercise were reported by most of the sample; purging, loss-of-control eating, and having been overweight were reported by less than a third. Dieting typically emerged first, on average around age 14; the remainder of behaviors tended to emerge between ages 14 and 14½; and average age of formal diagnosis was slightly over 15 years. Dyads had good agreement regarding presence and timing of all behaviors except for dieting, for which children reported about 6 months earlier onset/longer duration, compared to parents. Although older age at interview was associated with lower body mass index percentile and higher EDE-Q score, neither age of onset nor duration was associated with severity when controlling for current age. DISCUSSION: Teens and parents describe a similar sequence of behavior changes leading up to a diagnosis of AN that typically begins with dieting and occurs over an approximate 1- to 1½-year period. Querying teens and parents about eating behavior changes may aid in identification and early intervention in AN; adolescents with normal weight who engage in persistent dieting or restrictive eating may warrant more frequent weight monitoring.

Food Insecurity and Eating Pathology in Adolescents.

Adolescence is a critical period for the emergence of eating disorders, and food insecurity may be related to eating pathology and weight, as evidenced in adults. However, little is known about food insecurity and eating pathology during this developmental period, and associations between food insecurity and body mass index (BMI) are mixed. Therefore, we examined associations between food insecurity and BMI percentile, self-reported eating-related pathology and binge eating, and subgroup differences by race/ethnicity. In a subset, we examined the relationship between food insecurity and real-world hunger, food craving, and loss-of-control eating using ecological momentary assessment (EMA). Fifty-eight adolescents at two sites (clinical sample, n = 38, BMI percentile ≥ 70th; community sample, n = 20, all BMI strata) completed self-report questionnaires. Adolescents were 15.2 ± 2.1 years old, 62% female, 50% Black, 34.5% Hispanic, with BMI percentile = 80.5 ± 25.8 (range 4-99). In the full sample, food insecurity was associated with greater BMI (p < 0.01), higher shape/weight overvaluation (p = 0.04), and greater number of binge eating episodes among those reporting at least one binge episode (p < 0.01), with significant relationships for BMI percentile, shape/weight overvaluation, body dissatisfaction, and binge episode frequency among Hispanic adolescents only (each p < 0.01). As in adults, food insecurity may be a risk factor for eating pathology, particularly for Hispanic teens.

Adolescent Weight Management Intervention in a Nonclinical Setting: Changes in Eating-Related Cognitions and Depressive Symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: The present study was a secondary data analysis of a randomized controlled trial (RCT) to examine changes in depressive symptoms and eating-related cognitions in teens who participated in a nonclinic-based adolescent behavioral weight control treatment delivered by YMCA coaches. Differences in intervention effects were also examined by sex. METHODS: Adolescents (N = 66; 13-17 years; 60.6% girls) with overweight (10.6%) or obesity (53.0% with severe obesity) participated in an RCT comparing 2 versions of an evidence-based intervention. Adolescents completed measures of eating-related cognitions (Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire) and depressive symptoms (Children's Depressive Inventory-2) at baseline and end of active treatment (16 weeks). RESULTS: There were no significant effects of group, time, or group by time interaction for depressive symptoms, global eating-related cognitions, dietary restraint, or eating concerns (ps > 0.05). Shape concerns (p = 0.04) and weight concerns (p = 0.02) significantly decreased over the intervention. Significant interactions between sex and time on global eating-related cognitions (p < 0.001), eating (p = 0.002), shape (p = 0.02), and weight concerns (p = 0.004) were detected such that female participants' scores decreased over the course of the treatment, but male participants' scores did not. CONCLUSION: The results demonstrate some positive and no detrimental effects of a nonclinic-based behavioral weight control intervention on adolescents' eating-related cognitions and depressive symptoms. The findings may mitigate concerns that dissemination of structured, nonclinic-based weight management programs for adolescents will produce negative eating and mood outcomes; however, replication of results in larger trials is needed.

Salience of loss of control for pediatric binge episodes: does size really matter?

OBJECTIVE: The subjective experience of loss of control (LOC) during eating, independent of overeating, may be a salient marker of disordered eating and risk for overweight in youth. However, few studies have directly tested this notion in an adequately powered sample. METHOD: Three-hundred-sixty-seven youth (M ± SD age = 12.7 ± 2.8 y) were categorized as reporting objective binge eating (OBE; 12.5%), subjective binge eating (SBE; 11.4%), objective overeating without LOC (OO; 18.5%), or no episodes (NE; 57.5%). Disordered eating attitudes, general psychopathology, and adiposity were assessed. RESULTS: Children with OBE and SBE generally did not differ in their disordered eating attitudes, emotional eating, eating in the absence of hunger, depressive and anxiety symptoms, or adiposity. However, both OBE and SBE youth had significantly greater disordered eating attitudes, emotional eating, eating in the absence of hunger, depressive and anxiety symptoms, and adiposity compared to those with OO or NE (ps < .05). DISCUSSION: For non-treatment-seeking youth, LOC during eating episodes, rather than episode size, appears to be the most salient marker of eating and weight problems.

A conceptual model of how US families with athletic adolescent daughters manage food and eating.

Health professionals concerned about the risks of adolescent obesity and disordered eating practices need greater understanding of how families with adolescents manage food in today's fast paced environment. This paper sought to gain conceptual understanding of the food and eating routines of families with a female adolescent athlete from the perspectives of mothers and daughters. Ten white, non-Hispanic mothers and their daughters were purposively sampled from high school track and cross country teams in Upstate New York. Informants completed in-depth, qualitative interviews. Researchers used the constant comparative method to analyze transcripts for emergent themes and to build a conceptual framework that represented the many factors and processes involved in the construction of family food routines. Families varied in forms and patterns of family eating activities with mothers playing a pivotal role in these routines. Family members' individual needs and values were negotiated in constructing these routines. In this sample the daughters' involvement in sports influenced family eating routines, but mothers' employment, ethnicity, social support, income, and areas of residence also played a role. The model describes how individual participants' food choice processes interact to produce family food routines. The conceptual model can inform research and practice related to the family environments in which adolescents experience food and eating.

Negative childhood experiences and disordered eating in adolescents in a weight management program: The role of depressive symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: Stress negatively impacts adolescent weight status and eating behaviors. Previous research investigating this association has focused on traumatic events in childhood, but little is known about the impact of commonly experienced stressful life events and weight-related outcome. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine the association between negative life events and weight-related outcomes (i.e., weight status, disordered eating behaviors, insulin sensitivity) in a sample of treatment-seeking adolescents with overweight and obesity. A further aim of the study was to examine the potential mediating role of depression. METHOD: Adolescents (N = 170; M age = 14.8; 62% female) presenting to an interdisciplinary weight management program completed measures related to negative life events, disordered eating patterns, and depressive symptoms prior to initiating treatment. Weight status and insulin sensitivity (using fasting glucose and fasting insulin) were objectively measured. RESULTS: Stressful experiences during childhood were significantly related to weight status, F = 2.78, p < .05, and disordered eating, F = 5.51, p < .001, in regression analyses. Stressful life events were not related to insulin sensitivity. Depressive symptoms mediated the association between stressful experiences and disordered eating (b = 0.001, [CI = 0.0002, 0.0011]). Depressive symptoms did not mediate this association for weight status or insulin sensitivity. DISCUSSION: Findings from the present study suggest that relatively common stressful events may be associated with development of disordered eating patterns in adolescents with overweight or obesity presenting to treatment. Providers working in weight management settings should consider assessing a range of potentially stressful life events and their potential weight-related implications.

JOIN for ME: Testing a Scalable Weight Control Intervention for Adolescents.

Background: The goal of this randomized controlled trial was to compare the relative effectiveness of a comprehensive lifestyle intervention delivered through the YMCA, JOIN for ME, with an enhanced version of this program that included on-site supervised group physical activity and opportunities for peer support, in decreasing adolescent weight status. Methods: Sixty-six adolescents with BMI >85th percentile and absolute BMI <50 were randomly assigned to the JOIN for ME or the JOIN for ME enhanced program. Teens in both conditions attended 16 weekly, in-person group sessions, followed by four biweekly and four monthly maintenance sessions. The enhanced condition also included weekly, group-based physical activity sessions and challenges. Group sessions were led by YMCA coaches. Results: Groups did not differ at baseline by age (14.7 + 1.6 years), sex (60.6% female), racial/ethnic minority status (37.7%), or weight (53.0% with severe obesity). Retention was 91% at 16 weeks and 82% at 10 months. Controlling for minority status and sex, there were no significant group differences over time for BMI (p = 0.15), BMI z-scores for age and sex (BMIz, p = 0.07), or percent overweight (p = 0.15). Across all participants, on average, BMI decreased by 1.4 kg/m2, BMIz decreased by 0.12, and percent overweight decreased by 8.8% at four months. Conclusions: There were no significant differences observed in primary outcomes for adolescents randomized to the standard and enhanced versions of the JOIN for ME program. Although the absence of a control condition precludes attribution to the intervention, teens in both conditions demonstrated greater decreases in weight status than what was observed in an open trial of the original program.

Differences in brain structure and function in children with the FTO obesity-risk allele.

OBJECTIVE: Noncoding alleles of the fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene have been associated with obesity risk, yet the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Risk allele carriers show alterations in brain structure and function, but previous studies have not disassociated the effects of genotype from those of body mass index (BMI). METHODS: Differences in brain structure and function were examined in children without obesity grouped by their number of copies (0,1,2) of the FTO obesity-risk single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1421085. One hundred five 5- to 10-year-olds (5th-95th percentile body fat) were eligible to participate. Usable scans were obtained from 93 participants (15 CC [homozygous risk], 31 CT [heterozygous] and 47 TT [homozygous low risk]). RESULTS: Homozygous C allele carriers (CCs) showed greater grey matter volume in the cerebellum and temporal fusiform gyrus. CCs also demonstrated increased bilateral cerebellar white matter fibre density and increased resting-state functional connectivity between the bilateral cerebellum and regions in the frontotemporal cortices. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to examine brain structure and function related to FTO alleles in young children not yet manifesting obesity. This study lends support to the notion that the cerebellum may be involved in FTO-related risk for obesity, yet replication and further longitudinal study are required.