Anaemia in hospitalised preschool children from a rural area in Mozambique: a case control study in search for aetiological agents.

BACKGROUND: Young children bear the world's highest prevalence of anaemia, the majority of which is of multifactorial aetiology, which in turn hampers its successful prevention. Even moderate degrees of anaemia are associated with increased mortality and morbidity. Despite this evidence, there is a lack of effective preventive programs and absence of consensus in the safety of iron supplementation in malaria areas, which reflects the poor understanding of the contribution of different aetiologies to anaemia. In order to reduce the anaemia burden in the most vulnerable population, a study to determine the aetiology of anaemia among pre-school Mozambican children was performed. METHODS: We undertook a case-control study of 443 preschool hospitalized children with anaemia (haemoglobin concentration <11 g/dl) and 289 community controls without anaemia. Inclusion criteria were: age 1-59 months, no blood transfusion in the previous month, residence in the study area and signed informed consent. Both univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to identify factors associated with anaemia and adjusted attributable fractions (AAF) were estimated when appropriate. RESULTS: Malaria (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 8.39, p < 0.0001; AAF = 37%), underweight (AOR = 8.10, p < 0.0001; AAF = 43%), prealbumin deficiency (AOR = 7.11, p < 0.0001; AAF = 77%), albumin deficiency (AOR = 4.29, p = 0.0012; AAF = 30%), HIV (AOR = 5.73, p = 0.0060; AAF = 18%), and iron deficiency (AOR = 4.05, p < 0.0001; AAF = 53%) were associated with anaemia. Vitamin A deficiency and α-thalassaemia were frequent (69% and 64%, respectively in cases) but not independently related to anaemia. Bacteraemia (odds ratio (OR) = 8.49, p = 0.004), Parvovirus-B19 (OR = 6.05, p = 0.017) and Epstein-Barr virus (OR = 2.10, p = 0.0015) infections were related to anaemia only in the unadjusted analysis. Neither vitamin B12 deficiency nor intestinal parasites were associated with anaemia. Folate deficiency was not observed. CONCLUSIONS: Undernutrition, iron deficiency, malaria, and HIV are main factors related to anaemia in hospitalised Mozambican preschool children. Effective programs and strategies for the prevention and management of these conditions need to be reinforced. Specifically, prevention of iron deficiency that accounted in this study for more than half of anaemia cases would have a high impact in reducing the burden of anaemia in children living under similar conditions. However this deficiency, a common preventable and treatable condition, remains neglected by the international public health community.

Pathophysiology of Anemia in HIV-Infected Children Exposed to Malaria.

Anemia is a common condition in HIV-infected children; however, its pathophysiology and the contribution of frequent causes of anemia such as iron deficiency (ID) and malaria are poorly understood. We carried out an ancillary study on the effect of HIV on anemia as part of a case-control study on risk factors of anemia among Mozambican children aged 1-59 months with documented HIV status. Of them, 390 children were admitted to the hospital with anemia (hemoglobin [Hb] < 11 g/dL), whereas 272 children without anemia (Hb ≥ 11 g/dL) were recruited in the community. We assessed differences by HIV status in the presentation of anemia etiological factors and the effect of HIV infection on the association of each factor with anemia. Among the 99 HIV-infected and 563 uninfected children included, HIV-infected anemic children had an increased risk of undernutrition (P < 0.0001), Epstein-Barr virus infection (P < 0.0001), bacteremia (P = 0.0060), a decreased risk of malaria (P < 0.0001), and a similar risk of ID (P = 0.7371) compared with anemic-uninfected children. HIV-infected children were significantly less likely to have anemia associated with Plasmodium falciparum hyperparasitemia (P = 0.0444) and had a lower prevalence of parasitemia in the bone marrow (BM) (P < 0.0001) than anemic-uninfected children. Levels of BM erythropoiesis and dyserythropoiesis were comparable between groups. These findings suggest that the pathophysiology of anemia among HIV-infected malaria-exposed children is not related to HIV-specific effects. For unclear reasons, HIV-infected children had reduced risk of malaria infection, whereas ID prevalence was comparable in HIV-infected and uninfected children, suggesting that iron supplementation recommendations should not be different in HIV-infected children.

Anaemia in hospitalised preschool children from a rural area in Mozambique: a case control study in search for aetiological agents

Young children bear the world's highest prevalence of anaemia, the majority of which is of multifactorial aetiology, which in turn hampers its successful prevention. Even moderate degrees of anaemia are associated with increased mortality and morbidity. Despite this evidence, there is a lack of effective preventive programs and absence of consensus in the safety of iron supplementation in malaria areas, which reflects the poor understanding of the contribution of different aetiologies to anaemia. In order to reduce the anaemia burden in the most vulnerable population, a study to determine the aetiology of anaemia among pre-school Mozambican children was performed. Methods: We undertook a case-control study of 443 preschool hospitalized children with anaemia (haemoglobin concentration <11 g/dl) and 289 community controls without anaemia. Inclusion criteria were: age 1-59 months, no blood transfusion in the previous month, residence in the study area and signed informed consent. Both univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to identify factors associated with anaemia and adjusted attributable fractions (AAF) were estimated when appropriate. Results: Malaria (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 8.39, p < 0.0001; AAF = 37%), underweight (AOR = 8.10, p < 0.0001; AAF = 43%), prealbumin deficiency (AOR = 7.11, p < 0.0001; AAF = 77%), albumin deficiency (AOR = 4.29, p = 0.0012; AAF = 30%), HIV (AOR = 5.73, p = 0.0060; AAF = 18%), and iron deficiency (AOR = 4.05, p < 0.0001; AAF = 53%) were associated with anaemia. Vitamin A deficiency and α-thalassaemia were frequent (69% and 64%, respectively in cases) but not independently related to anaemia. Bacteraemia (odds ratio (OR) = 8.49, p = 0.004), Parvovirus-B19 (OR = 6.05, p = 0.017) and Epstein-Barr virus (OR = 2.10, p = 0.0015) infections were related to anaemia only in the unadjusted analysis. Neither vitamin B12 deficiency nor intestinal parasites were associated with anaemia. Folate deficiency was not observed. Conclusions: Undernutrition, iron deficiency, malaria, and HIV are main factors related to anaemia in hospitalised Mozambican preschool children. Effective programs and strategies for the prevention and management of these conditions need to be reinforced. Specifically, prevention of iron deficiency that accounted in this study for more than half of anaemia cases would have a high impact in reducing the burden of anaemia in children living under similar conditions. However this deficiency, a common preventable and treatable condition, remains neglected by the international public health community.

Mastoiditis aguda: revisión casuística / Acute mastoiditis: review of a single center experience

Fundamento. La incidencia de mastoiditis aguda y la necesidad de tratamiento quirúrgico disminuyeron con la introducción del tratamiento antibiótico. Posteriormente se ha mantenido estable o podría haber aumentado por cambios de la sensibilidad microbiana. Objetivo. Conocer la presentación clínica y evolución de las mastoiditis agudas tratadas en nuestro centro. Método. Revisión retrospectiva de 19 mastoiditis agudas ingresadas entre enero de 1998 y enero de 2002. Resultados. La edad media fue de 35 meses. Todos iban a guarderia o colegio. 7 (36.8%) tenían otitis medias agudas recurrentes. 13 (68.4%) recibieron antibióticos el mes anterior. 17 (89.5%) presentaban otitis aguda. 13 (68.4%) manifestaban fiebre, 18 (94.7%) otalgia o irritabilidad, 9 (47.4%) supuración, todos tímpano alterado y eritema postauricular, 15 (78.9%) tumefacción postauricular y 17 (89.5%) pabellón desplazado. El recuento fue superior a 15000 leucocitos/mm3 en 4, la proteína C reactiva superior a 60 mg/L en 7 y el hemocultivo negativo en 15 de 17. La tomografía computerizada confirmó el diagnóstico, 2 con osteitis y 2 con absceso retroauricular. El antibiótico más utilizado fue la cefotaxima. 2 requirieron punción timpánica (10.5%), 8 drenaje transtimpánico (42.1%), 2 mastoidectomía (10.5%) y 9 (47.4%) ningun abordaje. Conclusiones. La mastoiditis aguda se da sobre todo en menores de 6 años, no siempre con otitis media aguda recurrente, que han recibido antibióticos el mes previo. Habitualmente es complicación de una otitis media aguda. El diagnóstico es clínico. La tomografía computerizada determina la extensión. El tratamiento es antibiótico endovenoso y drenaje de la colección purulenta (AU)

Background. The incidence of acute mastoiditis and the need for surgical treatment declined significantly after the introduction of antibiotics and stabilized subsequently. However, given the changes in bacterial sensitivities, the incidence of acute mastoiditis may be rising. Objective. To describe the clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcome of patients diagnosed with acute mastoiditis in our institution. Method. Retrospective review of 19 patients with acute mastoiditis seen in our institution between January 1998 and January 2002. Results. Mean age at diagnosis was 35 months. All patients were attending either daycare or school. Seven patients (36.8%) had recurrent acute otitis media. Thirteen patients (68.4%) had received an antibiotic during the previous month. Seventeen patients (89.5%) had concomitant acute otitis media, 13 (68.4%) had fever, 18 (94.7%) had otalgia or irritability, 9 (47.4%) had otorrhea, 15 (78.9%) had retroauricular swelling, 17 (89.5%) had auricular displacement, and ll patients had abnormal tympanic membrane and retroauricular erythema. White blood cell count was greater than 15,000/cumm in 4 patients, C-Reactive protein was greater than 60 mg/L in 7 patients, and blood culture was negative in 15 of 17 patients in whom blood culture was obtained. Computorized tomography confirmed the diagnosis of mastoiditis in all patients. In two patients, there was evidence of osteitis, and in 2 patients a retroauricular abscess was noted. The most frequent antibiotic prescribed was cefotaxime. Two patients (10.5%) required myringotomy, 8 patients (42.1%) required the placement of tympanic drainage tubes, 2 patients (10.5%) required mastoidectomy, and 9 patients (47.4%) did not require any surgical intervention. Conclusions. Acute mastoiditis is diagnosed typically in young children (< 6 years) that have a recent history of antibiotic administration, as a complication of acute otitis media. However, it is not always associated with recurrent acute otitis media.The diagnosis is usually clinical, and computorized tomography may help in the definition of the extension of the infection. The treatment is with intravenous antibiotics and surgical drainage of any abscesses (AU)