Epidemiology of Respiratory Viruses in Korean Children Before and After the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Prospective Study From National Surveillance System.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic led to a decrease in the seasonal incidence of many respiratory viruses worldwide due to the impact of nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs). However, as NPI measures were relaxed, respiratory viral infections re-emerged. We aimed to characterize the epidemiology of respiratory viruses in Korean children during post-COVID-19 pandemic years compared to that before the pandemic. METHODS: A nationwide prospective ongoing surveillance study has been conducted for detection of respiratory viruses between January 2017 and June 2023. We included data on adenovirus (AdV), human bocavirus (HBoV), human coronavirus (HCoV), human metapneumovirus (HMPV), human rhinovirus (HRV), influenza virus (IFV), parainfluenza virus (PIV), and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which were detected in children and adolescents younger than 20 years. We analyzed the weekly detection frequency of individual viruses and the age distribution of the affected children. The study period was divided into prepandemic (2017-2019) and postpandemic (2021-2023) periods. RESULTS: A total of 19,589 and 14,068 samples were collected in the pre- and postpandemic periods, respectively. The overall detection rate of any virus throughout the study period was 63.1%, with the lowest occurring in the 2nd half of 2020 (50.6%) and the highest occurring in the 2nd half of 2021 (72.3%). Enveloped viruses (HCoV, HMPV, IFV, PIV, and RSV) almost disappeared, but nonenveloped viruses (AdV, HBoV, and HRV) were detected even during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The codetection rate increased from 15.0% prepandemic to 19.1% postpandemic (P < 0.001). During the postpandemic period, a large out-of-season PIV and HMPV epidemic occurred, but the usual seasonality began to be restored in 2023. The mean age of children with each virus detected in 2023 was significantly greater than that in prepandemic years (P = 0.003 and 0.007 for AdV and HCoV, respectively; P < 0.001 for others). The mean age of children with IFV increased in 2022 (11.1 ± 5.2 years) from prepandemic years (7.9 ± 4.6 years) but decreased to 8.7 ± 4.1 years in 2023. CONCLUSION: With the relaxation of NPI measures, several seasonal respiratory viruses cocirculated with unusual seasonal epidemic patterns and were associated with increasing age of infected children.

Comparative Computational Analysis of Spike Protein Structural Stability in SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Subvariants.

The continuous emergence of new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants with multiple spike (S) protein mutations pose serious threats to current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) therapies. A comprehensive understanding of the structural stability of SARS-CoV-2 variants is vital for the development of effective therapeutic strategies as it can offer valuable insights into their potential impact on viral infectivity. S protein mediates a virus' attachment to host cells by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) through its receptor-binding domain (RBD), and mutations in this protein can affect its stability and binding affinity. We analyzed S protein structural stability in various Omicron subvariants computationally. Notably, the S protein sequences analyzed in this work were obtained directly from our own sample collection. We evaluated the binding free energy between S protein and ACE2 in several complex forms. Additionally, we measured distances between the RBD of each chain in S protein to analyze conformational changes. Unlike most of the prior studies, we analyzed full-length S protein-ACE2 complexes instead of only RBD-ACE2 complexes. Omicron subvariants including BA.1, BA.2, BA.2.12.1, BA.4/BA.5, BA.2.75, BA.2.75_K147E, BA.4.6 and BA.4.6_N658S showed enhanced stability compared to wild type, potentially due to distinct S protein mutations. Among them, BA.2.75 and BA.4.6_N658S exhibited the highest and lowest level of stability, respectively.

Serial Intervals and Household Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant, South Korea, 2021.

To clarify transmissibility of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 Omicron variant, we determined serial intervals and secondary attack rates among household contacts in South Korea. Mean serial interval for 12 transmission pairs was 2.9 days, and secondary attack rate among 25 households was 50.0%, raising concern about a rapid surge in cases.

Community Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant, South Korea, 2021.

In South Korea, a November 2021 outbreak caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 Omicron variant originated from 1 person with an imported case and spread to households, kindergartens, workplaces, restaurants, and hospitals, resulting in 11 clusters within 3 weeks. An epidemiologic curve indicated rapid community transmission of the Omicron variant.

Genomic evidence of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection in the Republic of Korea.

As the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic continues, reinfection is likely to become increasingly common. However, confirming COVID-19 reinfection is difficult because it requires whole-genome sequencing of both infections to identify the degrees of genetic differences. Since the first reported case of reinfection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the Republic of Korea in April 2020, four additional cases were classified as suspected reinfection cases. We performed whole-genome sequencing of viral RNA extracted from swabs obtained at the initial infection and reinfection stages of these four suspected cases. The interval between initial infection and reinfection of all four suspected cases was more than 3 months. All four patients were young (10-29 years), and they displayed mild symptoms or were asymptomatic during the initial infection and reinfection episodes. The analysis of genome sequences combined with the epidemiological results revealed that only two of the four cases were confirmed as reinfection, and both were reinfected with the Epsilon variant. Due to the prolonged COVID-19 pandemic, the possibility of reinfections with SARS-CoV-2 variants is increasing, as reported in our study. Therefore, continuous monitoring of cases is necessary.

Recent increase in the detection of human parainfluenza virus during the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic in the Republic of Korea.

BACKGROUND: Since the onset of the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the prevalence of respiratory infectious diseases, particularly, the flu epidemic, has considerably decreased. The low detection rate and decreased number of specimens have hindered the implementation of the Korea Influenza and Respiratory Viruses Surveillance System (KINRESS), a sentinel surveillance system. Most patients with influenza-like illness visit the COVID-19 screening clinic; therefore, the number of samples collected in sentinel surveillance has decreased by more than 50%. Thus, the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency supplemented sentinel surveillance with non-sentinel surveillance by private medical diagnostic centers. We report here a delayed and unprecedented high detection of human parainfluenza virus (hPIV) in the Republic of Korea during the COVID-19 pandemic through sentinel and non-sentinel surveillance. We also examined the causes and implications of the changes in prevalence of hPIV.l METHODS: We collected data for 56,984 and 257,217 samples obtained through sentinel and non-sentinel surveillance, respectively. Eight viruses were confirmed using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or real-time PCR. Some specimens from the sentinel surveillance were used for genetic characterization of hPIV type 3. RESULTS: In 2020, hPIV was rarely detected; however, it was detected in August 2021. The detection rate continued to increase considerably in September and reached over 70% in October, 2021. The detection rate of hPIV3 was significantly higher in infants and preschoolers aged 0-6 years in both sentinel and non-sentinel surveillance. Detection of hPIV was delayed in metropolitan areas compared to that in suburban regions. The hemagglutinin-neuraminidase sequences of hPIV3 generated in 2021 were not distinct from those detected prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. CONCLUSIONS: The operation of non-sentinel and sentinel surveillance to monitor respiratory viruses could sensitively detect an unprecedented revival of hPIV in the Republic of Korea during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Molecular Dynamics Studies on the Structural Stability Prediction of SARS-CoV-2 Variants Including Multiple Mutants.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) pandemic worldwide. The spike protein in SARS-CoV-2 fuses with and invades cells in the host respiratory system by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). The spike protein, however, undergoes continuous mutation from a D614G single mutant to an omicron variant, including multiple mutants. In this study, variants, including multiple mutants (double, triple mutants, B.1.620, delta, alpha, delta_E484Q, mu, and omicron) were investigated in patients. The 3D structure of the full-length spike protein was used in conformational analysis depending on the SARS-CoV-2 variants. The structural stability of the variant types was analyzed based on the distance between the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of each chain in the spike protein and the binding free energy between the spike protein and bound ACE2 in the one-, two-, and three-open-complex forms using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. Omicron variants, the most prevalent in the recent history of the global pandemic, which consist of 32 mutations, showed higher stability in all open-complex forms compared with that of the wild type and other variants. We suggest that the conformational stability of the spike protein is the one of the important determinants for the differences in viral infectivity among variants, including multiple mutants.

Importation and Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) Variant of Concern in Korea, November 2021.

In November 2021, 14 international travel-related severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) B.1.1.529 (omicron) variant of concern (VOC) patients were detected in South Korea. Epidemiologic investigation revealed community transmission of the omicron VOC. A total of 80 SARS-CoV-2 omicron VOC-positive patients were identified until December 10, 2021 and 66 of them reported no relation to the international travel. There may be more transmissions with this VOC in Korea than reported.

Methylation of Cervical Neoplastic Cells Infected With Human Papillomavirus 16.

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to evaluate the role of methylation of adenylate cyclase activating peptide 1 (ADCYAP1), paired box gene 1 (PAX1), cell adhesion molecule 1 (CADM1), and T-lymphocyte maturation-associated protein (MAL) during carcinogenesis. METHODS: We evaluated the methylation of 4 genes by using the cervical carcinoma cell lines (CaSki, SiHa, HeLa, and C33A) and cervical neoplastic cells from 56 subjects with human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16)-infected low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSILs), 50 subjects with HPV16-infected high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSILs), and 24 subjects with HPV16-infected invasive cervical cancer who attended Seoul St. Mary's Hospital. Methylation of the 4 genes was evaluated using quantitative bisulfate pyrosequencing. RESULTS: The ADCYAP1 promoter was hypermethylated in the 4 cell lines (CaSki, 97.40 ± 1.39; SiHa, 82.04 ± 17.02; HeLa, 96.14 ± 2.08; and C33A, 78 ± 10.18). PAX1 and CADM1 were hypermethylated in the HPV16/18-infected cell lines CaSki (PAX1, 91.18 ± 9.91; CADM1, 93.5 ± 7.33), SiHa (PAX1, 96.14 ± 2.08; CADM1, 93.15 ± 8.81), and HeLa (PAX1, 82.04 ± 17.02; CADM1, 92.43 ± 9.95). MAL was hypermethylated in the CaSki cell line (96.04 ± 4.74). Among human cervical neoplastic cells, the methylation indices of ADCYAP1 were 7.8 (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 7.0-8.6) in subjects with LSILs and 39.8 (95% CI, 29.0-54.7) in those with cervical cancer (P < 0.001); for PAX1, 7.2 (95% CI, 6.1-8.5) and 37.8 (95% CI, 27.1-52.7), respectively; for CADM1, 3.5 (95% CI, 3.0-4.0) and 17.7 (95% CI, 10.8-29.1), respectively; for MAL, 2.7 (95% CI, 2.5-3.0) and 13.0 (95% CI, 7.6-22.0), respectively (P < 0.001 for each). Immunohistochemical staining results were positive in the cytoplasm of subjects with low methylation of the 4 gene promoters; however, they were negative in the cytoplasm of those with hypermethylation of the 4 gene promoters. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that the methylation of ADCYAP1, PAX1, CADM1, and MAL may be highly associated with the development of cervical cancer, and that gene expression can be suppressed by gene promoter hypermethylation.

Drug susceptibility to etravirine and darunavir among Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-derived pseudoviruses in treatment-experienced patients with HIV/AIDS in South Korea.

BACKGROUND: In South Korea, about 20 types of antiretroviral drugs are used in the treatment of patients with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Since 2010, raltegravir, etravirine, and darunavir have been spotlighted as new drugs for highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)-experienced adults with resistant HIV-1 in South Korea. In this study, we investigated potential susceptibility of pseudoviruses derived from treatment-experienced Korean patients to etravirine vs efavirenz and to darunavir vs amprenavir and indinavir using a modified single-round assay. METHODS: Pseudoviruses derived from nine treatment-experienced patients infected with HIV-1 were investigated by comparison with the wild-type strain pNL4-3. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values were calculated and drug susceptibility was compared. The intensity of genotypic drug resistance was classified based on the 'SIR' interpretation of the Stanford data base. RESULTS: Drug susceptibility was generally higher for etravirine and darunavir compared with efavirenz, amprenavir, and indinavir in pseudoviruses derived from treatment-experienced patients. Pseudoviruses derived from patients KRB4025 and KRB8014, who exhibited long-term use of protease inhibitors, showed an outside of tested drug concentration, especially for amprenavir and indinavir. However, they exhibited a lower fold-change in resistance to darunavir. CONCLUSIONS: Etravirine and darunavir have been used in HAART since 2010 in South Korea. Therefore, these antiretroviral drugs together with other newly introduced antiretroviral drugs are interesting for the optimal treatment of patients with treatment failure. This study may help to find a more effective HAART in the case of HIV-1 infected patients that have difficulty being treated.

Distribution and perinatal transmission of bacterial vaginal infections in pregnant women without vaginal symptoms.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the distribution and vertical transmission of bacterial vaginal infections in asymptomatic pregnant women. METHODS: We performed multiplex PCR on secretions collected on cervical swabs from pregnant women at over 36 weeks of gestation and on oral secretions collected from their neonates immediately after delivery. We detected sexually transmitted infections (STIs) with the following 6 species: Trichomonas vaginalis, Mycoplasma hominis, Mycoplasma genitalium, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Ureaplasma urealyticum. RESULTS: Infectious agents were detected in 64 of 455 pregnant women (14.1%) and in 11 neonates (2.4%). The rate of vertical transmission was 17.2% and all the infectious agents detected in neonates were concordant with those found in their mothers. U. urealyticum was the most frequently detected in the maternal genitalia, followed by M. hominis. Women who were in labor for a longer period of time had a higher risk of vertically transmitting STI agents to their neonates. CONCLUSIONS: Vertical transmission of bacterial STIs from mothers to their infants is possible at delivery and influenced by the duration of labor. STIs should be diagnosed in pregnant women to prevent vertical transmission from the mother to the infant at the time of delivery.

Replication kinetics and infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant sublineages recovered in the Republic of Korea.

BACKGROUND: We analyzed the correlation between the infectivity and transmissibility of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 Omicron sublineages BA.1, BA. 2, BA.4, and BA.5. METHODS: We assessed viral replication kinetics and infectivity at the cellular level. Nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal specimens were obtained from patients with coronavirus disease 2019, confirmed using whole-genome sequencing to be caused by the Omicron sublineages BA.1, BA.2, BA.4, or BA.5. These specimens were used to infect Vero E6 cells, derived from monkey kidneys, for the purpose of viral isolation. Viral stocks were then passaged in Vero E6 cells at a multiplicity of infection of 0.01, and culture supernatants were harvested at 12-hour intervals for 72 hours. To evaluate viral replication kinetics, we determined the cycle threshold values of the supernatants using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and converted these values to genome copy numbers. RESULTS: The viral load was comparable between BA.2, BA.4, and BA.5, whereas BA.1 exhibited a lower value. The peak infectious load of BA.4 was approximately 3 times lower than that of BA.2 and BA.5, while the peak load of BA.2 and BA.5 was about 7 times higher than that of BA.1. Notably, BA.1 demonstrated the lowest infectivity over the entire study period. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that the global BA.5 wave may have been amplified by the higher viral replication and infectivity of BA.5 compared to other Omicron sublineages. These analyses could support the rapid assessment of the impact of novel variants on case incidence.

Neutralization Testing-based Immunogenicity Analysis of Recent Prevalent Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Omicron Sublineages.

Although WHO declared the end of the public health emergency for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), XBB lineages continue to evolve and emerge globally. In particular, XBB.1.5 and XBB.1.16 are raising concerns because of their high immune evasion, leading to apprehensions regarding vaccine efficacy reduction and potential reinfection. We aimed to investigate the COVID-19 outbreak in Korea and predict the likelihood of reinfection by testing neutralizing activity against live viruses from the S clade and 19 Omicron sublineages. We found a significant risk of infection with the currently prevalent XBB lineage for individuals who were either vaccinated early or infected during the initial Omicron outbreak. Vaccinated individuals were better equipped than unvaccinated individuals to produce neutralizing antibodies for other SARS-CoV-2 variants upon infection. Therefore, unvaccinated individuals do not easily develop neutralizing activity against other variants and face the highest risk of reinfection by the XBB lineage. Our study provides important information to facilitate the development of strategies for monitoring populations that would be the most susceptible to new COVID-19 outbreaks.

Three distinct ORF1a recombinants of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant of concern.

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has led to the emergency of various lineages through mutations and recombination. In the Delta lineage, we identified recombination events in the ORF1a gene, which divided the Delta sublineages into three different genotypes (Delta R1-R3). The regional distributions of Delta R1 and Delta R2 were not correlated, indicating that recombination occurred early in the Delta outbreak. The impact of the ORF1a gene on SARS-CoV-2 transmission remains unclear; however, our findings suggest that recombination may have contributed to the evolution and global spread of the Delta lineage.

Phylodynamic analysis revealed that human mobility and vaccination were correlated to the local spread of SARS-CoV-2 in Republic of Korea.

Following the global emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant of concern (VOC) in 2020, the Delta variant triggered another wave in 2021. The AY.69 lineage, a Delta VOC, was particularly prevalent in Republic of Korea (South Korea) from May 2021 to January 2022, despite the synchronized implementation of vaccination programmes and non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) such as social distancing. In this study, we used phylogeographic analysis combined with a generalized linear model (GLM) to examine the impact of human movement and vaccination on viral transmission. Our findings indicated that transmission primarily originated in South Korea's metropolitan areas, and a positive correlation was observed between total human mobility (tracked by GPS on mobile phones and estimated through credit card consumption) and viral spread. The phylodynamic analysis further revealed that non-vaccinated individuals were the primary transmitters of the virus during the study period, even though vaccination programmes had commenced three months prior to the AY.69 outbreak. Our study emphasizes the need to focus on controlling SARS-CoV-2 transmission in metropolitan regions and among unvaccinated populations. Furthermore, the positive correlation between mobility data and viral dissemination could contribute to the development of more accurate predictive models for local spread of pandemics.

Increase in Viral Load in Patients With SARS-CoV-2 Delta Variant Infection in the Republic of Korea.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread rapidly, causing in COVID-19 being declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization. The key variants include alpha, beta, gamma, and delta; these exhibit high viral transmission, pathogenicity, and immune evasion mechanisms. The delta variant, first confirmed in India, was detected in the majority of COVID-19 patients at the recent wave in the Republic of Korea. Here, the features of the delta variant were compared to the earlier waves, with focus on increased transmissibility. The viral load, from the initial days of infection to 14 days later, was compared based on epidemiological data collected at the time of confirmed diagnosis. The increased viral load observed in the delta variant-led infections influences the scale of the wave, owing to the increased rate of transmission. Infections caused by the delta variant increases the risk of hospitalization within 14 days after symptom onset, and the high viral load correlates with COVID-19 associated morbidity and mortality. Therefore, the future studies should compare the trend of disease severity caused by the high viral load of delta variant with previous waves and analyze the vaccine effects in light of the delta variant of fourth wave.

Neutralizing antibody responses in vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals infected with Omicron BA.1 variant.

BACKGROUND: The Omicron variant, with numerous mutations in the spike protein, reduces vaccine-induced immunity, leading to breakthrough infections. However, vaccine protection after infection with the Omicron variant is unclear. AIMS AND METHODS: To compare the neutralizing antibody responses between unvaccinated and vaccinated individuals infected with the Omicron variant, we have collected serial plasma samples from five unvaccinated and four vaccinated individuals with Omicron variant infection, including the first Omicron breakthrough infection case in the Republic of Korea. We evaluated neutralization antibody titers against D614G, Delta, and Omicron using live virus neutralizing assay, and calculated the plaque reduction neutralizing test value. RESULTS: In patients with two-dose vaccinations, neutralizing antibodies against Omicron variant were detected in plasma collected 4-9 days post symptom onset. However, in the plasma from unvaccinated patients and those vaccinated with one dose, neutralizing antibodies against the Omicron variant at the same time point were undetectable. Next, the 1- or 2-dose vaccinated infected groups showed potent cross-neutralizing activity against D614G and Delta variants after 11-14 days. In contrast, the neutralizing antibody titers in the unvaccinated group were low or undetectable. CONCLUSIONS: The major limitation of this study is the small sample size due to the limited samples targeting the first reported cases of Omicron BA.1 variant infection in the Republic of Korea (n = 9). Nevertheless, we found that vaccinated individuals rapidly produced neutralizing antibodies against Omicron, and potent cross-neutralizing antibodies against D614G and Delta upon infection with Omicron.

An outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection in a long-term care facility in South Korea.

We report a cluster of 12 cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) reinfection in a long-term care facility in South Korea. There were two outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the facility at the beginning and end of October 2021, respectively. All residents in the facility were screened for SARS-CoV-2 infection using RT-PCR as part of the investigation of the second outbreak. Twelve residents, who had infection confirmed during the first outbreak, were found to be re-positive for RT-PCR test at the second outbreak. 8 Of 12 RT-PCR re-positive cases were confirmed as reinfections based on investigation through the whole genome sequencing, viral culture, and serological analysis, despite of the short interval between the first and second outbreaks (29-33 days) and a history of full vaccination for 7 of the 12 re-positive cases. This study suggests that decreased immunity and underlying health condition in older adults makes them susceptible to reinfection, highlighting the importance of prevention and control measures regardless of vaccination status in long-term care settings.

Gene expression profiles are altered in human papillomavirus-16 E6 D25E-expressing cell lines.

Previously, we have reported that the human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 E6 D25E is the most prevalent variant in Korean women at high risk for cervical cancers. Several studies have identified an association between the increased frequency of this variant and the elevated risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and invasive cervical carcinoma. To investigate whether the HPV-16 E6 D25E variant might influence cervical cancer progression, we used an oligonucleotide microarray approach to identify transcriptionally altered gene expression patterns in recombinant wild-type E6 or E6 D25E variant-expressing HPV-negative cancer cells. We found that 211 genes were significantly up- or down-regulated (at least 1.5-fold, p < 0.05). We identified 14 genes, nine down-regulated and five up-regulated upon E6 D25E expression, compared with wild-type E6 expression. These results further emphasize the unique biological activity of the HPV-16 E6 D25E variant.

Impact of coronavirus disease 2019 on respiratory surveillance and explanation of high detection rate of human rhinovirus during the pandemic in the Republic of Korea.

BACKGROUND: After the detection of the first case of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in South Korea on January 20, 2019, it has triggered three major outbreaks. To decrease the disease burden of COVID-19, social distancing and active mask wearing were encouraged, reducing the number of patients with influenza-like illness and altering the detection rate of influenza and respiratory viruses in the Korea Influenza and Respiratory Viruses Surveillance System (KINRESS). We examined the changes in respiratory viruses due to COVID-19 in South Korea and virological causes of the high detection rate of human rhinovirus (hRV) in 2020. METHODS: We collected 52 684 oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal swab samples from patients with influenza-like illness in cooperation with KINRESS from 2016 to 2020. Influenza virus and other respiratory viruses were confirmed using real-time RT-PCR. The weekly detection rate was used to compare virus detection patterns. RESULTS: Non-enveloped virus (hRV, human bocavirus, and human adenovirus) detection rates during the COVID-19 pandemic were maintained. The detection rate of hRV significantly increased in 2020 compared with that in 2019 and was negatively correlated with number of COVID-19-confirmed cases in 2020. The distribution of strains and genetic characteristics in hRV did not differ between 2019 and 2020. CONCLUSIONS: The COVID-19 pandemic impacted the respiratory virus detection rate. The extremely low detection rate of enveloped viruses resulted from efforts to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in South Korea. The high detection rate of hRV may be related to resistance against environmental conditions as a non-enveloped virus and the long period of viral shedding from patients.