Author Correction: Maximizing and stabilizing luminescence from halide perovskites with potassium passivation.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Maximizing and stabilizing luminescence from halide perovskites with potassium passivation.

Metal halide perovskites are of great interest for various high-performance optoelectronic applications. The ability to tune the perovskite bandgap continuously by modifying the chemical composition opens up applications for perovskites as coloured emitters, in building-integrated photovoltaics, and as components of tandem photovoltaics to increase the power conversion efficiency. Nevertheless, performance is limited by non-radiative losses, with luminescence yields in state-of-the-art perovskite solar cells still far from 100 per cent under standard solar illumination conditions. Furthermore, in mixed halide perovskite systems designed for continuous bandgap tunability (bandgaps of approximately 1.7 to 1.9 electronvolts), photoinduced ion segregation leads to bandgap instabilities. Here we demonstrate substantial mitigation of both non-radiative losses and photoinduced ion migration in perovskite films and interfaces by decorating the surfaces and grain boundaries with passivating potassium halide layers. We demonstrate external photoluminescence quantum yields of 66 per cent, which translate to internal yields that exceed 95 per cent. The high luminescence yields are achieved while maintaining high mobilities of more than 40 square centimetres per volt per second, providing the elusive combination of both high luminescence and excellent charge transport. When interfaced with electrodes in a solar cell device stack, the external luminescence yield-a quantity that must be maximized to obtain high efficiency-remains as high as 15 per cent, indicating very clean interfaces. We also demonstrate the inhibition of transient photoinduced ion-migration processes across a wide range of mixed halide perovskite bandgaps in materials that exhibit bandgap instabilities when unpassivated. We validate these results in fully operating solar cells. Our work represents an important advance in the construction of tunable metal halide perovskite films and interfaces that can approach the efficiency limits in tandem solar cells, coloured-light-emitting diodes and other optoelectronic applications.

Dark Subgap States in Metal-Halide Perovskites Revealed by Coherent Multidimensional Spectroscopy.

Metal-halide perovskites show excellent properties for photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications, with power conversion efficiencies of solar cell and LEDs exceeding 20%. Being solution processed, these polycrystalline materials likely contain a large density of defects compared to melt-grown semiconductors. Surprisingly, typical effects from defects (absorption below the bandgap, low fill factor and open circuit voltage in devices, strong nonradiative recombination) are not observed. In this work, we study thin films of metal-halide perovskites CH3NH3PbX3 (X = Br, I) with ultrafast multidimensional optical spectroscopy to resolve the dynamics of band and defect states. We observe a shared ground state between the band-edge transitions and a continuum of sub-bandgap states, which extends at least 350 meV below the band edge). We explain the comparatively large bleaching of the dark sub-bandgap states with oscillator strength borrowing from the band-edge transition. Our results show that upon valence to conduction band excitation, such subgap states are instantaneously bleached for large parts of the carrier lifetime and conversely that most dark sub-bandgap states can be populated by light excitation. This observation helps to unravel the photophysical origin of the unexpected optoelectronic properties of these materials.

Exciton-Phonon Interactions Govern Charge-Transfer-State Dynamics in CdSe/CdTe Two-Dimensional Colloidal Heterostructures.

CdSe/CdTe core-crown type-II nanoplatelet heterostructures are two-dimensional semiconductors that have attracted interest for use in light-emitting technologies due to their ease of fabrication, outstanding emission yields, and tunable properties. Despite this, the exciton dynamics of these complex materials, and in particular how they are influenced by phonons, is not yet well understood. Here, we use a combination of femtosecond vibrational spectroscopy, temperature-resolved photoluminescence (PL), and temperature-dependent structural measurements to investigate CdSe/CdTe nanoplatelets with a thickness of four monolayers. We show that charge-transfer (CT) excitons across the CdSe/CdTe interface are formed on two distinct time scales: initially from an ultrafast (∼70 fs) electron transfer and then on longer time scales (∼5 ps) from the diffusion of domain excitons to the interface. We find that the CT excitons are influenced by an interfacial phonon mode at ∼120 cm-1, which localizes them to the interface. Using low-temperature PL spectroscopy we reveal that this same phonon mode is the dominant mechanism in broadening the CT PL. On cooling to 4 K, the total PL quantum yield reaches close to unity, with an ∼85% contribution from CT emission and the remainder from an emissive sub-band-gap state. At room temperature, incomplete diffusion of domain excitons to the interface and scattering between CT excitons and phonons limit the PL quantum yield to ∼50%. Our results provide a detailed picture of the nature of exciton-phonon interactions at the interfaces of 2D heterostructures and explain both the broad shape of the CT PL spectrum and the origin of PL quantum yield losses. Furthermore, they suggest that to maximize the PL quantum yield both improved engineering of the interfacial crystal structure and diffusion of domain excitons to the interface, e.g., by altering the relative core/crown size, are required.

Excitation Energy Delocalization and Transfer to Guests within MII4L6 Cage Frameworks.

We have prepared a series of MII4L6 tetrahedral cages containing one or the other of two distinct BODIPY moieties, as well as mixed cages that contain both BODIPY chromophores. The photophysical properties of these cages and their fullerene-encapsulated adducts were studied in depth. Upon cage formation, the charge-transfer character exhibited by the bis(aminophenyl)-BODIPY subcomponents disappeared. Strong excitonic interactions were instead observed between at least two BODIPY chromophores along the edges of the cages, arising from the electronic delocalization through the metal centers. This excited-state delocalization contrasts with previously reported cages. All cages exhibited the same progression from an initial bright singlet state (species I) to a delocalized dark state (species II), driven by interactions between the transition dipoles of the ligands, and subsequently into geometrically relaxed species III. In the case of cages loaded with C60 or C70 fullerenes, ultrafast host-to-guest electron transfer was observed to compete with the excitonic interactions, short-circuiting the I → II → III sequence.

Efficient Singlet Fission and Triplet-Pair Emission in a Family of Zethrene Diradicaloids.

Singlet fission offers the potential to overcome thermodynamic limits in solar cells by converting the energy of a single absorbed photon into two distinct triplet excitons. However, progress is limited by the small family of suitable materials, and new chromophore design principles are needed. Here, we experimentally vindicate the design concept of diradical stabilization in a tunable family of functionalized zethrenes. All molecules in the series exhibit rapid formation of a bound, spin-entangled triplet-pair state TT. It can be dissociated by thermally activated triplet hopping and exhibits surprisingly strong emission for an optically "dark" state, further enhanced with increasing diradical character. We find that the TT excited-state absorption spectral shape correlates with the binding energy between constituent triplets, providing a new tool to understand this unusual state. Our results reveal a versatile new family of tunable materials with excellent optical and photochemical properties for exploitation in singlet fission devices.

Formation of Long-Lived Color Centers for Broadband Visible Light Emission in Low-Dimensional Layered Perovskites.

We investigate the origin of the broadband visible emission in layered hybrid lead-halide perovskites and its connection with structural and photophysical properties. We study ⟨001⟩ oriented thin films of hexylammonium (HA) lead iodide, (C6H16N)2PbI4, and dodecylammonium (DA) lead iodide, (C12H28N)2PbI4, by combining first-principles simulations with time-resolved photoluminescence, steady-state absorption and X-ray diffraction measurements on cooling from 300 to 4 K. Ultrafast transient absorption and photoluminescence measurements are used to track the formation and recombination of emissive states. In addition to the excitonic photoluminescence near the absorption edge, we find a red-shifted, broadband (full-width at half-maximum of about 0.4 eV), emission band below 200 K, similar to emission from ⟨110⟩ oriented bromide 2D perovskites at room temperature. The lifetime of this sub-band-gap emission exceeds that of the excitonic transition by orders of magnitude. We use X-ray diffraction measurements to study the changes in crystal lattice with temperature. We report changes in the octahedral tilt and lattice spacing in both materials, together with a phase change around 200 K in DA2PbI4. DFT simulations of the HA2PbI4 crystal structure indicate that the low-energy emission is due to interstitial iodide and related Frenkel defects. Our results demonstrate that white-light emission is not limited to ⟨110⟩ oriented bromide 2D perovskites but a general property of this class of system, and highlight the importance of defect control for the formation of low-energy emissive sites, which can provide a pathway to design tailored white-light emitters.

Synthesis and Optical Properties of Lead-Free Cesium Tin Halide Perovskite Nanocrystals.

Metal halide perovskite crystal structures have emerged as a class of optoelectronic materials, which combine the ease of solution processability with excellent optical absorption and emission qualities. Restricting the physical dimensions of the perovskite crystallites to a few nanometers can also unlock spatial confinement effects, which allow large spectral tunability and high luminescence quantum yields at low excitation densities. However, the most promising perovskite structures rely on lead as a cationic species, thereby hindering commercial application. The replacement of lead with nontoxic alternatives such as tin has been demonstrated in bulk films, but not in spatially confined nanocrystals. Here, we synthesize CsSnX3 (X = Cl, Cl0.5Br0.5, Br, Br0.5I0.5, I) perovskite nanocrystals and provide evidence of their spectral tunability through both quantum confinement effects and control of the anionic composition. We show that luminescence from Sn-based perovskite nanocrystals occurs on pico- to nanosecond time scales via two spectrally distinct radiative decay processes, which we assign to band-to-band emission and radiative recombination at shallow intrinsic defect sites.

Charge extraction via graded doping of hole transport layers gives highly luminescent and stable metal halide perovskite devices.

One source of instability in perovskite solar cells (PSCs) is interfacial defects, particularly those that exist between the perovskite and the hole transport layer (HTL). We demonstrate that thermally evaporated dopant-free tetracene (120 nm) on top of the perovskite layer, capped with a lithium-doped Spiro-OMeTAD layer (200 nm) and top gold electrode, offers an excellent hole-extracting stack with minimal interfacial defect levels. For a perovskite layer interfaced between these graded HTLs and a mesoporous TiO2 electron-extracting layer, its photoluminescence yield reaches 15% compared to 5% for the perovskite layer interfaced between TiO2 and Spiro-OMeTAD alone. For PSCs with graded HTL structure, we demonstrate efficiency of up to 21.6% and an extended power output of over 550 hours of continuous illumination at AM1.5G, retaining more than 90% of the initial performance and thus validating our approach. Our findings represent a breakthrough in the construction of stable PSCs with minimized nonradiative losses.

Chain Coupling and Luminescence in High-Mobility, Low-Disorder Conjugated Polymers.

Optoelectronic devices based on conjugated polymers often rely on multilayer device architectures, as it is difficult to design all the different functional requirements, in particular the need for efficient luminescence and fast carrier transport, into a single polymer. Here we study the photophysics of a recently discovered class of conjugated polymers with high charge carrier mobility and low degree of energetic disorder and investigate whether it is possible in this system to achieve by molecular design a high photoluminescence quantum yield without sacrificing carrier mobility. Tracing exciton dynamics over femtosecond to microsecond time scales, we show that nearly all nonradiative exciton recombination arises from interactions between chromophores on different chains. We evaluate the temperature dependence and role of electron-phonon coupling leading to fast internal conversion in systems with strong interchain coupling and the extent to which this can be turned off by varying side chain substitution. By sterically decreasing interchain interaction, we present an effective approach to increase the fluorescence quantum yield of low-energy gap polymers. We present a red-NIR-emitting amorphous polymer with the highest reported film luminescence quantum efficiency of 18% whose mobility concurrently exceeds that of amorphous-Si. This is a key result toward the development of single-layer optoelectronic devices that require both properties.

Short contacts between chains enhancing luminescence quantum yields and carrier mobilities in conjugated copolymers.

Efficient conjugated polymer optoelectronic devices benefit from concomitantly high luminescence and high charge carrier mobility. This is difficult to achieve, as interchain interactions, which are needed to ensure efficient charge transport, tend also to reduce radiative recombination and lead to solid-state quenching effects. Many studies detail strategies for reducing these interactions to increase luminescence, or modifying chain packing motifs to improve percolation charge transport; however achieving these properties together has proved elusive. Here, we show that properly designed amorphous donor-alt-acceptor conjugated polymers can circumvent this problem; combining a tuneable energy gap, fast radiative recombination rates and luminescence quantum efficiencies >15% with high carrier mobilities exceeding 2.4 cm2/Vs. We use photoluminescence from exciton states pinned to close-crossing points to study the interplay between mobility and luminescence. These materials show promise towards realising advanced optoelectronic devices based on conjugated polymers, including electrically-driven polymer lasers.

Direct Bandgap Behavior in Rashba-Type Metal Halide Perovskites.

The generation and recombination of charge carriers in semiconductors through photons controls photovoltaic and light-emitting diode operation. Understanding of these processes in hybrid perovskites has advanced, but remains incomplete. Using femtosecond transient absorption and photoluminescence, it is observed that the luminescence signal shows a rise over 2 ps, while initially hot photogenerated carriers cool to the band edge. This indicates that the luminescence from hot carriers is weaker than that of cold carriers, as expected from strongly radiative transitions in direct gap semiconductors. It is concluded that the electrons and holes show a strong overlap in momentum space, despite recent proposals that Rashba splitting leads to a band offset suppressing such an overlap. A number of possible resolutions to this, including lattice dynamics that remove the Rashba splitting at room temperature, and localization of luminescence events to length scales below 10 nm are considered.

Long-range exciton transport in conjugated polymer nanofibers prepared by seeded growth.

Easily processed materials with the ability to transport excitons over length scales of more than 100 nanometers are highly desirable for a range of light-harvesting and optoelectronic devices. We describe the preparation of organic semiconducting nanofibers comprising a crystalline poly(di-n-hexylfluorene) core and a solvated, segmented corona consisting of polyethylene glycol in the center and polythiophene at the ends. These nanofibers exhibit exciton transfer from the core to the lower-energy polythiophene coronas in the end blocks, which occurs in the direction of the interchain π-π stacking with very long diffusion lengths (>200 nanometers) and a large diffusion coefficient (0.5 square centimeters per second). This is made possible by the uniform exciton energetic landscape created by the well-ordered, crystalline nanofiber core.

Ultrafast carrier thermalization in lead iodide perovskite probed with two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy.

In band-like semiconductors, charge carriers form a thermal energy distribution rapidly after optical excitation. In hybrid perovskites, the cooling of such thermal carrier distributions occurs on timescales of about 300 fs via carrier-phonon scattering. However, the initial build-up of the thermal distribution proved difficult to resolve with pump-probe techniques due to the requirement of high resolution, both in time and pump energy. Here, we use two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy with sub-10 fs resolution to directly observe the carrier interactions that lead to a thermal carrier distribution. We find that thermalization occurs dominantly via carrier-carrier scattering under the investigated fluences and report the dependence of carrier scattering rates on excess energy and carrier density. We extract characteristic carrier thermalization times from below 10 to 85 fs. These values allow for mobilities of 500 cm2 V-1 s-1 at carrier densities lower than 2 × 1019 cm-3 and limit the time for carrier extraction in hot carrier solar cells.Carrier-carrier scattering rates determine the fundamental limits of carrier transport and electronic coherence. Using two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy with sub-10 fs resolution, Richter and Branchi et al. extract carrier thermalization times of 10 to 85 fs in hybrid perovskites.

Efficient Triplet Exciton Fusion in Molecularly Doped Polymer Light-Emitting Diodes.

Solution-processed polymer organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) doped with triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA)-upconversion molecules, including 9,10-diphenylanthracene, perylene, rubrene and TIPS-pentacene, are reported. The fraction of triplet-generated electroluminescence approaches the theoretical limit. Record-high efficiencies in solution-processed OLEDs based on these materials are achieved. Unprecedented solid-state TTA-upconversion quantum yield of 23% (TTA-upconversion reaction efficiency of 70%) at electrical excitation well below one-sun equivalent is observed.

High-performance light-emitting diodes based on carbene-metal-amides.

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) promise highly efficient lighting and display technologies. We introduce a new class of linear donor-bridge-acceptor light-emitting molecules, which enable solution-processed OLEDs with near-100% internal quantum efficiency at high brightness. Key to this performance is their rapid and efficient utilization of triplet states. Using time-resolved spectroscopy, we establish that luminescence via triplets occurs within 350 nanoseconds at ambient temperature, after reverse intersystem crossing to singlets. We find that molecular geometries exist at which the singlet-triplet energy gap (exchange energy) is close to zero, so that rapid interconversion is possible. Calculations indicate that exchange energy is tuned by relative rotation of the donor and acceptor moieties about the bridge. Unlike other systems with low exchange energy, substantial oscillator strength is sustained at the singlet-triplet degeneracy point.

Photon Reabsorption in Mixed CsPbCl3:CsPbI3 Perovskite Nanocrystal Films for Light-Emitting Diodes.

Cesium lead halide nanocrystals, CsPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I), exhibit photoluminescence quantum efficiencies approaching 100% without the core-shell structures usually used in conventional semiconductor nanocrystals. These high photoluminescence efficiencies make these crystals ideal candidates for light-emitting diodes (LEDs). However, because of the large surface area to volume ratio, halogen exchange between perovskite nanocrystals of different compositions occurs rapidly, which is one of the limiting factors for white-light applications requiring a mixture of different crystal compositions to achieve a broad emission spectrum. Here, we use mixtures of chloride and iodide CsPbX3 (X = Cl, I) perovskite nanocrystals where anion exchange is significantly reduced. We investigate samples containing mixtures of perovskite nanocrystals with different compositions and study the resulting optical and electrical interactions. We report excitation transfer from CsPbCl3 to CsPbI3 in solution and within a poly(methyl methacrylate) matrix via photon reabsorption, which also occurs in electrically excited crystals in bulk heterojunction LEDs.

Photon recycling in lead iodide perovskite solar cells.

Lead-halide perovskites have emerged as high-performance photovoltaic materials. We mapped the propagation of photogenerated luminescence and charges from a local photoexcitation spot in thin films of lead tri-iodide perovskites. We observed light emission at distances of ≥50 micrometers and found that the peak of the internal photon spectrum red-shifts from 765 to ≥800 nanometers. We used a lateral-contact solar cell with selective electron- and hole-collecting contacts and observed that charge extraction for photoexcitation >50 micrometers away from the contacts arose from repeated recycling between photons and electron-hole pairs. Thus, energy transport is not limited by diffusive charge transport but can occur over long distances through multiple absorption-diffusion-emission events. This process creates high excitation densities within the perovskite layer and allows high open-circuit voltages.

Enhancing photoluminescence yields in lead halide perovskites by photon recycling and light out-coupling.

In lead halide perovskite solar cells, there is at least one recycling event of electron-hole pair to photon to electron-hole pair at open circuit under solar illumination. This can lead to a significant reduction in the external photoluminescence yield from the internal yield. Here we show that, for an internal yield of 70%, we measure external yields as low as 15% in planar films, where light out-coupling is inefficient, but observe values as high as 57% in films on textured substrates that enhance out-coupling. We analyse in detail how externally measured rate constants and photoluminescence efficiencies relate to internal recombination processes under photon recycling. For this, we study the photo-excited carrier dynamics and use a rate equation to relate radiative and non-radiative recombination events to measured photoluminescence efficiencies. We conclude that the use of textured active layers has the ability to improve power conversion efficiencies for both LEDs and solar cells.