Spray deposition of highly transparent, low-resistance networks of silver nanowires over large areas.

A method to produce scalable, low-resistance, high-transparency, percolating networks of silver nanowires by spray coating is presented. By optimizing the spraying parameters, networks with a sheet resistance of R(s) ≈ 50 Ω â–¡(-1) at a transparency of T = 90% can be produced. The critical processing parameter is shown to be the spraying pressure. Optimizing the pressure reduces the droplet size resulting in more uniform networks. High uniformity leads to a low percolation exponent, which is essential for low-resistance, high-transparency films.

Measurement of multicomponent solubility parameters for graphene facilitates solvent discovery.

We have measured the dispersibility of graphene in 40 solvents, with 28 of them previously unreported. We have shown that good solvents for graphene are characterized by a Hildebrand solubility parameter of delta(T) approximately 23 MPa(1/2) and Hansen solubility parameters of delta(D) approximately 18 MPa(1/2), delta(P) approximately 9.3 MPa(1/2), and delta(H) approximately 7.7 MPa(1/2). The dispersibility is smaller for solvents with Hansen parameters further from these values. We have used transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis to show that the graphene is well exfoliated in all cases. Even in relatively poor solvents, >63% of observed flakes have <5 layers.

"Amorphous nickel sulfide" is hydrated nanocrystalline nis with a core-shell structure.

The application of a range of experimental techniques shows that "amorphous nickel sulfide" (the material precipitated from aqueous solutions of Ni(II) salts and S(II-) under ambient conditions) is actually a hydrated nanoparticulate material with an approximate formula NiS.1.5H(2)O. The particles comprise a crystalline, anhydrous core (diameter ca. 1-3 nm) with the millerite (NiS) structure, surrounded by a hydrated shell phase. The materials prepared under acidic conditions (pH = 3 and 5) transform with age to form polydymite (Ni(3)S(4)) and heazlewoodite (Ni(3)S(2)), while materials prepared at pH = 7 and 9 do not undergo this transformation. At pH = 12, the preparation procedure yields NiAs-type NiS as a metastable phase.

Bone growth and turnover in progesterone receptor knockout mice.

The role of progesterone receptor (PR) signaling in skeletal metabolism is controversial. To address whether signaling through the PR is necessary for normal bone growth and turnover, we performed histomorphometric and microcomputed tomography analyses of bone from homozygous female PR knockout (PRKO) mice at 6, 12, and 26 wk of age. These mice possess a null mutation of the PR locus, which blocks the gene expression of A and B isoforms of PR. Body weight gain, uterine weight gain, and tibia longitudinal bone growth were normal in PRKO mice. In contrast, total, cancellous, and cortical bone mass were increased in the humerus of 12-wk-old PRKO mice, whereas cortical and cancellous bone mass in the tibia was normal. At 26 wk of age, cancellous bone area in the proximal tibia metaphysis of PRKO mice was 153% greater than age matched wild-type mice. The improved cancellous bone balance in 6-month-old PRKO mice was associated with elevated bone formation and a tendency toward reduced osteoclast perimeter. Taken together, these findings suggest that PR signaling in mice is not essential for bone growth and turnover. However, at some skeletal sites, PR signaling attenuates the accumulation of cortical and cancellous bone mass during adolescence.

TIEG1 null mouse-derived osteoblasts are defective in mineralization and in support of osteoclast differentiation in vitro.

Transforming growth factor beta-inducible early gene 1 (TIEG1) is a member of the Kruppel-like transcription factor family. To understand the physiological role of TIEG1, we generated TIEG(-/-) (null) mice and found that the TIEG(-/-) mice had increased osteoblast numbers with no increased bone formation parameters. However, when calvarial osteoblasts (OBs) were isolated from neonatal TIEG(-/-) and TIEG(+/+) mice and cultured in vitro, the TIEG(-/-) cells displayed reduced expression of important OB differentiation markers. When the OBs were differentiated in vitro by treatment with bone morphogenic protein 2, the OBs from TIEG(+/+) calvaria displayed several mineralized nodules in culture, whereas those from TIEG(-/-) mice showed no nodules. To characterize the OBs' ability to support osteoclast differentiation, the OBs from TIEG(+/+) and TIEG(-/-) mice were cultured with marrow and spleen cells from TIEG(+/+) mice. Significantly fewer osteoclasts developed when TIEG(-/-) OBs were used to support osteoclast differentiation than when TIEG(+/+) OBs were used. Examination of gene expression in the TIEG(-/-) OBs revealed decreased RANKL and increased OPG expression compared to TIEG(+/+) OBs. The addition of RANKL to these cocultures only partially restored the ability of TIEG(-/-) OBs to support osteoclast differentiation, whereas M-CSF alone or combined with RANKL had no additional effect on osteoclast differentiation. We conclude from these data that TIEG1 expression in OBs is critical for both osteoblast-mediated mineralization and osteoblast support of osteoclast differentiation.

Arkansas Medicaid Family Planning Waiver services: what physicians should know.

The development of family planning services is considered one of the ten greatest achievements in public health in the United States (US) during the 20th century, enabling women to improve birth spacing and control family size. Arkansas Medicaid has expanded eligibility for family planning services to women of childbearing age with income at or below 200% of the federal poverty level (FPL). This paper describes the impact the family planning waiver has had on birth-related and economic outcomes. It also provides information that every physician should know regarding scope of services, client eligibility and provider enrollment.

Tapinarof Is a Natural AhR Agonist that Resolves Skin Inflammation in Mice and Humans.

Tapinarof (GSK2894512) is a naturally derived topical treatment with demonstrated efficacy for patients with psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, although the biologic target and mechanism of action had been unknown. We demonstrate that the anti-inflammatory properties of tapinarof are mediated through activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). We show that tapinarof binds and activates AhR in multiple cell types, including cells of the target tissue-human skin. In addition, tapinarof moderates proinflammatory cytokine expression in stimulated peripheral blood CD4+ T cells and ex vivo human skin, and impacts barrier gene expression in primary human keratinocytes; both of these processes are likely to be downstream of AhR activation based on current evidence. That the anti-inflammatory properties of tapinarof derive from AhR agonism is conclusively demonstrated using the mouse model of imiquimod-induced psoriasiform skin lesions. Topical treatment of AhR-sufficient mice with tapinarof leads to compound-driven reductions in erythema, epidermal thickening, and tissue cytokine levels. In contrast, tapinarof has no impact on imiquimod-induced skin inflammation in AhR-deficient mice. In summary, these studies identify tapinarof as an AhR agonist and confirm that its efficacy is dependent on AhR.

Intermittent treatment with parathyroid hormone (PTH) as well as a non-peptide small molecule agonist of the PTH1 receptor inhibits adipocyte differentiation in human bone marrow stromal cells.

Whereas continuous PTH infusion increases bone resorption and bone loss, intermittent PTH treatment stimulates bone formation, in part, via reactivation of quiescent bone surfaces and reducing osteoblast apoptosis. We investigated the possibility that intermittent and continuous PTH treatment also differentially regulates osteogenic and adipocytic lineage commitment of bone marrow stromal progenitor/mesenchymal stem cells (MSC). The MSC were cultured under mildly adipogenic conditions in medium supplemented with dexamethasone, insulin, isobutyl-methylxanthine and troglitazone (DIIT), and treated with 50 nM human PTH(1-34) for either 1 h/day or continuously (PTH replenished every 48 h). After 6 days, cells treated with PTH for 1 h/day retained their normal fibroblastic appearance whereas those treated continuously adopted a polygonal, irregular morphology. After 12-18 days numerous lipid vacuole and oil red O-positive adipocytes had developed in cultures treated with DIIT alone, or with DIIT and continuous PTH. In contrast, adipocyte number was reduced and alkaline phosphatase staining increased in the cultures treated with DIIT and 1 h/day PTH, indicating suppression of adipogenesis and possible promotion of early osteoblastic differentiation. Furthermore, intermittent but not continuous PTH treatment suppressed markers of differentiated adipocytes such as mRNA expression of lipoprotein lipase and PPARgamma as well as glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity. All of these effects of intermittent PTH were also produced by a 1 h/day treatment with AH3960 (30 microM), a small molecule, non-peptide agonist of the PTH1 receptor. AH3960, like PTH, activates both the cAMP and calcium signaling pathways. Treatment with the adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin for 1 h/day, mimicked the anti-adipogenic effect of intermittent PTH, whereas pretreatment with the protein kinase-A inhibitor H89 prior to intermittent PTH resulted in almost complete conversion to adipocytes. In contrast, the MAP kinase inhibitor PD 98059 failed to prevent the anti-adipocytic effect of intermittent PTH, suggesting that the inhibitory effect of PTH on adipocyte differentiation is predominantly cAMP-dependent. These results demonstrate a differential effect of PTH1 receptor agonists on the adipocytic commitment and differentiation of adult human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. This response may represent an additional mechanism that contributes to the overall bone anabolic action of intermittent PTH.

Development of a Topical Treatment for Psoriasis Targeting RORγ: From Bench to Skin.

BACKGROUND: Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder involving marked immunological changes. IL-17-targeting biologics have been successful in reducing the disease burden of psoriasis patients with moderate-to-severe disease. Unfortunately, the stratum corneum prevents penetration of large molecule weight proteins, including monoclonal antibodies. Thus, for the majority of psoriasis patients ineligible for systemic treatments, a small molecule targeting RORγt, the master regulator of IL-17 family cytokines, may represent an alternative topical medicine with biologic-like efficacy. METHODS AND FINDINGS: The preclinical studies described in this manuscript bridge the gap from bench to bedside to provide the scientific foundation for a compound entering clinical trials for patients with mild to moderate psoriasis. In addition to several ex vivo reporter assays, primary T cell cultures, and the imiquimod mouse model, we demonstrate efficacy in a newly developed human ex vivo skin assay, where Th17-skewed cytokine expression is induced from skin-resident immune cells. Importantly, the skin barrier remains intact allowing for the demonstration of topical drug delivery. With the development of this novel assay, we demonstrate potent compound activity in the target tissue: human skin. Finally, target engagement by this small molecule was confirmed in ex vivo lesional psoriatic skin. CONCLUSIONS: Our work describes a progressive series of assays to demonstrate the potential clinical value of a novel RORγ inverse agonist small molecule with high potency and selectivity, which will enter clinical trials in late 2015 for psoriasis patients.

Human aortic valve calcification is associated with an osteoblast phenotype.

BACKGROUND: Calcific aortic stenosis is the third most common cardiovascular disease in the United States. We hypothesized that the mechanism for aortic valve calcification is similar to skeletal bone formation and that this process is mediated by an osteoblast-like phenotype. METHODS AND RESULTS: To test this hypothesis, we examined calcified human aortic valves replaced at surgery (n=22) and normal human valves (n=20) removed at time of cardiac transplantation. Contact microradiography and micro-computerized tomography were used to assess the 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional extent of mineralization. Mineralization borders were identified with von Kossa and Goldner's stains. Electron microscopy and energy-dispersive spectroscopy were performed for identification of bone ultrastructure and CaPO4 composition. To analyze for the osteoblast and bone markers, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction was performed on calcified versus normal human valves for osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, osteocalcin, alkaline phosphatase, and the osteoblast-specific transcription factor Cbfa1. Microradiography and micro-computerized tomography confirmed the presence of calcification in the valve. Special stains for hydroxyapatite and CaPO4 were positive in calcification margins. Electron microscopy identified mineralization, whereas energy-dispersive spectroscopy confirmed the presence of elemental CaPO4. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction revealed increased mRNA levels of osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, osteocalcin, and Cbfa1 in the calcified valves. There was no change in alkaline phosphatase mRNA level but an increase in the protein expression in the diseased valves. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the concept that aortic valve calcification is not a random degenerative process but an active regulated process associated with an osteoblast-like phenotype.

MALT1 Protease Activity Is Required for Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses.

CARMA-BCL10-MALT1 signalosomes play important roles in antigen receptor signaling and other pathways. Previous studies have suggested that as part of this complex, MALT1 functions as both a scaffolding protein to activate NF-κB through recruitment of ubiquitin ligases, and as a protease to cleave and inactivate downstream inhibitory signaling proteins. However, our understanding of the relative importance of these two distinct MALT1 activities has been hampered by a lack of selective MALT1 protease inhibitors with suitable pharmacologic properties. To fully investigate the role of MALT1 protease activity, we generated mice homozygous for a protease-dead mutation in MALT1. We found that some, but not all, MALT1 functions in immune cells were dependent upon its protease activity. Protease-dead mice had defects in the generation of splenic marginal zone and peritoneal B1 B cells. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells displayed decreased T cell receptor-stimulated proliferation and IL-2 production while B cell receptor-stimulated proliferation was partially dependent on protease activity. In dendritic cells, stimulation of cytokine production through the Dectin-1, Dectin-2, and Mincle C-type lectin receptors was also found to be partially dependent upon protease activity. In vivo, protease-dead mice had reduced basal immunoglobulin levels, and showed defective responses to immunization with T-dependent and T-independent antigens. Surprisingly, despite these decreased responses, MALT1 protease-dead mice, but not MALT1 null mice, developed mixed inflammatory cell infiltrates in multiple organs, suggesting MALT1 protease activity plays a role in immune homeostasis. These findings highlight the importance of MALT1 protease activity in multiple immune cell types, and in integrating immune responses in vivo.

Estrogen receptor isoform-specific induction of progesterone receptors in human osteoblasts.

Estrogen induction of progesterone receptor (PR) expression may be important to bone physiology because progesterone has been implicated in the control of bone formation and resorption. Although PR gene expression can be induced in osteoblasts by estrogen signaling through the estrogen receptor (ER) a isoform, it is unknown whether the ER-beta isoform is involved in this regulation. The effect of estrogen on PR expression was examined in human fetal osteoblast (hFOB) cell lines stably transfected with either ER-alpha or ER-beta. Estrogen treatment of hFOB/ER-a cells induced PR messenger RNA (mRNA) steady-state levels after 24 h and protein levels after 48 h, as established by competitive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blotting. Interestingly, no induction of PR expression was observed in the hFOB/ER-beta cells during this period. However, PR mRNA was induced progressively after 48 h of treatment with estrogen with maximum levels achieved at 12 days posttreatment. ER protein also was increased after 12 days of treatment. Both A and B isoforms of PR (PRA and PRB) were induced by estrogen in the hFOB/ER-a cells as well as much later in hFOB/ER-beta cells. The pure antiestrogen ICI 182,780 prevented PR induction by estrogen in both cell lines. An ER-beta-selective antagonist R, R-tetrahydrochrysene (THC) abolished the induction of PR mRNA in hFOB/ER-beta but not in hFOB/ER-a cells, verifying that the response in the former cell line was ER-beta-mediated. Transient cotransfection of hFOB cells with ER-a or ER-beta together with either a human PRA or PRB promoter linked to a reporter plasmid revealed that although the PRB promoter was stimulated equally by estrogen activation of either ER isoform, PRA was activated preferentially by ER-alpha. Together, these results show that although estrogen can up-regulate endogenous PR gene expression in osteoblasts via both ER isoforms, ER-alpha is the predominant inducer.

Identification of selective small molecule inhibitors of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1) signaling pathway.

NOD1 is an intracellular pattern recognition receptor that recognizes diaminopimelic acid (DAP), a peptidoglycan component in gram negative bacteria. Upon ligand binding, NOD1 assembles with receptor-interacting protein (RIP)-2 kinase and initiates a signaling cascade leading to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Increased NOD1 signaling has been associated with a variety of inflammatory disorders suggesting that small-molecule inhibitors of this signaling complex may have therapeutic utility. We utilized a cell-based screening approach with extensive selectivity profiling to search for small molecule inhibitors of the NOD1 signaling pathway. Via this process we identified three distinct chemical series, xanthines (SB711), quinazolininones (GSK223) and aminobenzothiazoles (GSK966) that selectively inhibited iE-DAP-stimulated IL-8 release via the NOD1 signaling pathway. All three of the newly identified compound series failed to block IL-8 secretion in cells following stimulation with ligands for TNF receptor, TLR2 or NOD2 and, in addition, none of the compound series directly inhibited RIP2 kinase activity. Our initial exploration of the structure-activity relationship and physicochemical properties of the three series directed our focus to the quinazolininone biarylsulfonamides (GSK223). Further investigation allowed for the identification of significantly more potent analogs with the largest boost in activity achieved by fluoro to chloro replacement on the central aryl ring. These results indicate that the NOD1 signaling pathway, similarly to activation of NOD2, is amenable to modulation by small molecules that do not target RIP2 kinase. These compounds should prove useful tools to investigate the importance of NOD1 activation in various inflammatory processes and have potential clinical utility in diseases driven by hyperactive NOD1 signaling.

Identification of benzimidazole diamides as selective inhibitors of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) signaling pathway.

NOD2 is an intracellular pattern recognition receptor that assembles with receptor-interacting protein (RIP)-2 kinase in response to the presence of bacterial muramyl dipeptide (MDP) in the host cell cytoplasm, thereby inducing signals leading to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The dysregulation of NOD2 signaling has been associated with various inflammatory disorders suggesting that small-molecule inhibitors of this signaling complex may have therapeutic utility. To identify inhibitors of the NOD2 signaling pathway, we utilized a cell-based screening approach and identified a benzimidazole diamide compound designated GSK669 that selectively inhibited an MDP-stimulated, NOD2-mediated IL-8 response without directly inhibiting RIP2 kinase activity. Moreover, GSK669 failed to inhibit cytokine production in response to the activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-1 and closely related NOD1, all of which share common downstream components with the NOD2 signaling pathway. While the inhibitors blocked MDP-induced NOD2 responses, they failed to block signaling induced by NOD2 over-expression or single stranded RNA, suggesting specificity for the MDP-induced signaling complex and activator-dependent differences in NOD2 signaling. Investigation of structure-activity relationship allowed the identification of more potent analogs that maintained NOD2 selectivity. The largest boost in activity was achieved by N-methylation of the C2-ethyl amide group. These findings demonstrate that the NOD2 signaling pathway is amenable to modulation by small molecules that do not target RIP2 kinase activity. The compounds we identified should prove useful tools to investigate the importance of NOD2 in various inflammatory processes and may have potential clinical utility.

A key role for the endothelium in NOD1 mediated vascular inflammation: comparison to TLR4 responses.

Understanding the mechanisms by which pathogens induce vascular inflammation and dysfunction may reveal novel therapeutic targets in sepsis and related conditions. The intracellular receptor NOD1 recognises peptidoglycan which features in the cell wall of gram negative and some gram positive bacteria. NOD1 engagement generates an inflammatory response via activation of NFκB and MAPK pathways. We have previously shown that stimulation of NOD1 directly activates blood vessels and causes experimental shock in vivo. In this study we have used an ex vivo vessel-organ culture model to characterise the relative contribution of the endothelium in the response of blood vessels to NOD1 agonists. In addition we present the novel finding that NOD1 directly activates human blood vessels. Using human cultured cells we confirm that endothelial cells respond more avidly to NOD1 agonists than vascular smooth muscle cells. Accordingly we have sought to pharmacologically differentiate NOD1 and TLR4 mediated signalling pathways in human endothelial cells, focussing on TAK1, NFκB and p38 MAPK. In addition we profile novel inhibitors of RIP2 and NOD1 itself, which specifically inhibit NOD1 ligand induced inflammatory signalling in the vasculature. This paper is the first to demonstrate activation of whole human artery by NOD1 stimulation and the relative importance of the endothelium in the sensing of NOD1 ligands by vessels. This data supports the potential utility of NOD1 and RIP2 as therapeutic targets in human disease where vascular inflammation is a clinical feature, such as in sepsis and septic shock.

Multicomponent solubility parameters for single-walled carbon nanotube-solvent mixtures.

We have measured the dispersibility of single-walled carbon nanotubes in a range of solvents, observing values as high as 3.5 mg/mL. By plotting the nanotube dispersibility as a function of the Hansen solubility parameters of the solvents, we have confirmed that successful solvents occupy a well-defined range of Hansen parameter space. The level of dispersibility is more sensitive to the dispersive Hansen parameter than the polar or H-bonding Hansen parameter. We estimate the dispersion, polar, and hydrogen bonding Hansen parameter for the nanotubes to be = 17.8 MPa(1/2), = 7.5 MPa(1/2), and = 7.6 MPa(1/2). We find that the nanotube dispersibility in good solvents decays smoothly with the distance in Hansen space from solvent to nanotube solubility parameters. Finally, we propose that neither Hildebrand nor Hansen solubility parameters are fundamental quantities when it comes to nanotube-solvent interactions. We show that the previously calculated dependence of nanotube Hildebrand parameter on nanotube diameter can be reproduced by deriving a simple expression based on the nanotube surface energy. We show that solubility parameters based on surface energy give equivalent results to Hansen solubility parameters. However, we note that, contrary to solubility theory, a number of nonsolvents for nanotubes have both Hansen and surface energy solubility parameters similar to those calculated for nanotubes. The nature of the distinction between solvents and nonsolvents remains to be fully understood.

Nucleic acids bind to nanoparticulate iron (II) monosulphide in aqueous solutions.

In the hydrothermal FeS-world origin of life scenarios nucleic acids are suggested to bind to iron (II) monosulphide precipitated from the reaction between hydrothermal sulphidic vent solutions and iron-bearing oceanic water. In lower temperature systems, the first precipitate from this process is nanoparticulate, metastable FeSm with a mackinawite structure. Although the interactions between bulk crystalline iron sulphide minerals and nucleic acids have been reported, their reaction with nanoparticulate FeSm has not previously been investigated. We investigated the binding of different nucleic acids, and their constituents, to freshly precipitated, nanoparticulate FeSm. The degree to which the organic molecules interacted with FeSm is chromosomal DNA > RNA > oligomeric DNA > deoxadenosine monophosphate approximately deoxyadenosine approximately adenine. Although we found that FeSm does not fluoresce within the visible spectrum and there is no quantum confinement effect seen in the absorption, the mechanism of linkage of the FeSm to these biomolecules appears to be primarily electrostatic and similar to that found for the attachment of ZnS quantum dots. The results of a preliminary study of similar reactions with nanoparticulate CuS further supported the suggestion that the interaction mechanism was generic for nanoparticulate transition metal sulphides. In terms of the FeS-world hypothesis, the results of this study further support the idea that sulphide minerals precipitated at hydrothermal vents interact with biomolecules and could have assisted in the formation and polymerisation of nucleic acids.

Further characterization of human fetal osteoblastic hFOB 1.19 and hFOB/ER alpha cells: bone formation in vivo and karyotype analysis using multicolor fluorescent in situ hybridization.

We have previously generated an immortalized human fetal osteoblastic cell line (hFOB) using stably transfected temperature sensitive SV40 T-antigen (Harris et al. [1995a] J. Bone. Miner. Res. 10:178-1860). To characterize these cells for phenotypic/genotypic attributes desired for a good cell model system, we performed karyotype analysis by multicolor fluorescent in situ hybridization (M-FISH), their ability to form bone in vivo without developing cell transformation, and finally their ability to form extracellular matrix formation in vitro. The karyotype analysis of hFOB cells revealed structural or numeric anomalies involving 1-2 chromosomes. In contrast, the human osteosarcoma MG63 cells displayed multiple, and often complex, numeric, and structural abnormalities. Subcutaneous injection of hFOB cells in the presence of Matrigel into nude mice resulted in bone formation after 2-3 weeks. Electron microscopic analysis of the extracellular matrix deposited by hFOB cells in culture revealed a parallel array of lightly banded fibrils typical of the fibrillar collagens such as type I and III. These results demonstrate that the hFOB cell line has minimal chromosome abnormalities, exhibit the matrix synthetic properties of differentiated osteoblasts, and are immortalized but non-transformed cell line. These hFOB cells thus appear to be an excellent model system for the study of osteoblast biology in vitro.

Aqueous copper sulfide clusters as intermediates during copper sulfide formation.

Using a combination of experimental techniques, we show that Cu(II) reduction by sulfide to Cu(I) occurs in solution prior to precipitation. EPR and 63Cu NMR data show that reduction to Cu(l) occurs during the reaction of equimolar amounts of Cu(II) with sulfide. 63Cu solution NMR data show that Cu(I) is soluble when bound to sulfide and is in a site of high symmetry. EPR data confirm that Cu(I) forms in solution and that the mineral covellite, CuS, contains only Cu(I). Mass spectrometry data from covellite as well as laboratory prepared solid and solution CuS materials indicate that Cu3S3 six-membered rings form in solution. These trinuclear Cu rings are the basic building blocks for aqueous CuS molecular clusters, which lead to CuS precipitation. In controlled titration experiments where sulfide is slowly added to Cu(II), Cu3S3 rings and tetranuclear Cu molecular clusters (Cu4S5, and Cu4S6) form; the rings are composed primarily of Cu(II). During cluster formation from Cu3S3 condensation, some Cu(II) is released back into solution, indicating that Cu(II) reduction does not occur until after Cu-S bond and higher order cluster formation. Analysis of the frontier molecular orbitals for Cu(II) and sulfide indicate that an outer-sphere electron transfer is symmetry forbidden. These results are consistent with the formation of CuS bonds prior to electron transfer, which occurs via an inner-sphere process.