The association between perinatal factors and cardiometabolic risk factors in children and adolescents with overweight or obesity: A retrospective two-cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Children with obesity have an increased risk of cardiometabolic risk factors, but not all children carry a similar risk. Perinatal factors, i.e., gestational age (GA) and birth weight for GA, may affect the risk for metabolic complications. However, there are conflicting data whether the association between birth size and cardiometabolic risk factors is independent among children with obesity. Moreover, differential effects of GA and birth weight for GA on cardiometabolic risk factors in pediatric obesity are still unexplored. We aimed to investigate the association between birth weight for GA and cardiometabolic risk factors in children and adolescents with overweight or obesity and to assess whether the association is modified by prematurity. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a retrospective study of 2 cohorts, using data from the world's 2 largest registers of pediatric obesity treatment-The Swedish childhood obesity treatment register (BORIS) and The Adiposity Patients Registry (APV) (1991 to 2020). Included were individuals with overweight or obesity between 2 to 18 years of age who had data of birth characteristics and cardiometabolic parameters. Birth data was collected as exposure variable and the first reported cardiometabolic parameters during pediatric obesity treatment as the main outcome. The median (Q1, Q3) age at the outcome measurement was 11.8 (9.4, 14.0) years. The main outcomes were hypertensive blood pressure (BP), impaired fasting glucose, elevated glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), elevated total cholesterol, elevated low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, elevated triglycerides, decreased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and elevated transaminases. With logistic regression, we calculated the odds ratio (OR) and its 95% confidence interval (CI) for each cardiometabolic parameter. All the analyses were adjusted for sex, age, degree of obesity, migratory background, and register source. In total, 42,760 (51.9% females) individuals were included. Small for GA (SGA) was prevalent in 10.4%, appropriate for GA (AGA) in 72.4%, and large for GA (LGA) in 17.2%. Most individuals (92.5%) were born full-term, 7.5% were born preterm. Median (Q1, Q3) body mass index standard deviation score at follow-up was 2.74 (2.40, 3.11) units. Compared with AGA, children born SGA were more likely to have hypertensive BP (OR = 1.20 [95% CI 1.12 to 1.29], p < 0.001), elevated HbA1c (1.33 [1.06 to 1.66], p = 0.03), and elevated transaminases (1.21 [1.10 to 1.33], p < 0.001) as well as low HDL (1.19 [1.09 to 1.31], p < 0.001). On the contrary, individuals born LGA had lower odds for hypertensive BP (0.88 [0.83 to 0.94], p < 0.001), elevated HbA1c (0.81 [0.67 to 0.97], p < 0.001), and elevated transaminases (0.88 [0.81 to 0.94], p < 0.001). Preterm birth altered some of the associations between SGA and outcomes, e.g., by increasing the odds for hypertensive BP and by diminishing the odds for elevated transaminases. Potential selection bias due to occasionally missing data could not be excluded. CONCLUSIONS: Among children and adolescents with overweight/obesity, individuals born SGA are more likely to possess cardiometabolic risk factors compared to their counterparts born AGA. Targeted screening and treatment of obesity-related comorbidities should therefore be considered in this high-risk group of individuals.

Make Bayley III Scores Comparable between United States and German Norms-Development of Conversion Equations.

AIM: Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley-III) determines scaled scores and converts these into composite scores. It was shown that applying the German and the U.S. manual leads to different results. This study aims to systematically analyze the differences between the U.S. and German Bayley-III version and to develop conversion equations. METHODS: This simulation study generated a dataset of pairs of U.S. and German Bayley-III composite scores (cognitive: n = 4,416, language: n = 240,000, motor: n = 314,000) by converting the same number of achievable tasks for 48 age groups. Bland-Altman plot and regression analyses were performed to develop conversion equations for all age groups. RESULTS: German and US Bayley-III scores demonstrate distinct slope and interception for cognitive, language, and motor composite scores. Lower developmental performance leads to higher composite scores with U.S. norms compared with German norms (up to 15 points). These differences varied between age groups. With newly developed conversion equations, the results can be converted (R 2 > 0.98). INTERPRETATION: This study confirms systematic differences between U.S. and German Bayley test results due to different reference cohorts. Our data consider the full age range and add conversion equations. These findings need to be acknowledged when comparing Bayley Scores internationally.

Metabolic-endocrine disruption due to preterm birth impacts growth, body composition, and neonatal outcome.

Despite optimized nutrition, preterm-born infants grow slowly and tend to over-accrete body fat. We hypothesize that the premature dissociation of the maternal-placental-fetal unit disrupts the maintenance of physiological endocrine function in the fetus, which has severe consequences for postnatal development. This review highlights the endocrine interactions of the maternal-placental-fetal unit and the early perinatal period in both preterm and term infants. We report on hormonal levels (including tissue, thyroid, adrenal, pancreatic, pituitary, and placental hormones) and nutritional supply and their impact on infant body composition. The data suggest that the premature dissociation of the maternal-placental-fetal unit leads to a clinical picture similar to panhypopituitarism. Further, we describe how the premature withdrawal of the maternal-placental unit, neonatal morbidities, and perinatal stress can cause differences in the levels of growth-promoting hormones, particularly insulin-like growth factors (IGF). In combination with the endocrine disruption that occurs following dissociation of the maternal-placental-fetal unit, the premature adaptation to the extrauterine environment leads to early and fast accretion of fat mass in an immature body. In addition, we report on interventional studies that have aimed to compensate for hormonal deficiencies in infants born preterm through IGF therapy, resulting in improved neonatal morbidity and growth. IMPACT: Preterm birth prematurely dissociates the maternal-placental-fetal unit and disrupts the metabolic-endocrine maintenance of the immature fetus with serious consequences for growth, body composition, and neonatal outcomes. The preterm metabolic-endocrine disruption induces symptoms resembling anterior pituitary failure (panhypopituitarism) with low levels of IGF-1, excessive postnatal fat mass accretion, poor longitudinal growth, and failure to thrive. Appropriate gestational age-adapted nutrition alone seems insufficient for the achievement of optimal growth of preterm infants. Preliminary results from interventional studies show promising effects of early IGF-1 supplementation on postnatal development and neonatal outcomes.

Growth and body composition trajectories in infants meeting the WHO growth standards study requirements.

BACKGROUND: While the World Health Organization (WHO) developed postnatal growth standards for infants, corresponding body composition data remains scarce. This study explores growth and body composition trajectories in infants meeting the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS) eligibility criteria. STUDY DESIGN: Infants enrolled in this longitudinal cohort underwent anthropometric and body composition measurement by air displacement plethysmography (ADP) at 6 weeks, 12 weeks, and 5 months postnatally. Age and sex-specific growth and body composition percentiles were generated using GAMLSS, with extrapolated data at 5 months for those exceeding ADP weight limits. We evaluated which anthropometric measure (body mass index (BMI), weight for length or mid upper arm circumference) was most closely related to adiposity. RESULTS: Of the 225 infants with body composition measures, 187 met the WHO MGRS criteria. Their length and weight curves were comparable with WHO growth curves. Trajectory curves for fat and fat-free mass were developed. Of the anthropometric measures, BMI z score was most closely related to fat mass index z score at all timepoints. CONCLUSION: This study presents body composition trajectories for infants meeting the WHO growth standard criteria. BMI z score is the best anthropometric metric to estimate adiposity in infants. IMPACT: While postnatal growth standards derived from the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS) exist for the routine clinical assessment of infant growth, this study fills the previous gap in the availability of corresponding body composition data for term-born, healthy, breastfed infants meeting the MGRS criteria. Extrapolation was used to obtain body composition values for infants exceeding the weight limit of the ADP device, to avoid construction of biased body composition curves. Sex-specific growth curves for fat mass, fat-free mass, fat mass index, and fat-free mass index are presented for a population meeting the World Health Organization growth standard criteria.

The impact of parity and maternal obesity on the fetal outcomes of a non-selected Lower Saxony population.

OBJECTIVES: Maternal obesity during pregnancy is associated with adverse intrauterine events and fetal outcomes and may increase the risk of obesity and metabolic disease development in offspring. Higher parity, regardless of socioeconomic status, is associated with increased maternal body mass index (BMI). In this study, we examined the relationship between parity, maternal obesity, and fetal outcomes in a large sample of mother-neonate pairs from Lower Saxony, Germany. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study examined pseudonymized data of a non-selected singleton cohort from Lower Saxony's statewide quality assurance initiative. 448,963 cases were included. Newborn outcomes were assessed in relation to maternal BMI and parity. RESULTS: Maternal obesity was associated with an increased risk of placental insufficiency, chorioamnionitis, and fetal distress while giving birth. This effect was present across all parity groups. Fetal presentation did not differ between BMI groups, except for the increased risk of high longitudinal position and shoulder dystocia in obese women. Maternal obesity was also associated with an increased risk of premature birth, low arterial cord blood pH and low 5-min APGAR scores. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal obesity increases the risk of adverse neonatal outcomes. There is a positive correlation between parity and increased maternal BMI. Weight-dependent fetal risk factors increase with parity, while parity-dependent outcomes occur less frequently in multipara. Prevention and intervention programs for women planning to become pregnant can be promising measures to reduce pregnancy and birth complications.

[Individualized Somatic Classification of Newborns Using Birth Weight Percentiles Based On Maternal Body Height and Weight (Results of a Validation Study)]. / Individuelle somatische Klassifikation von Neugeborenen auf der Grundlage von Körperhöhe und Körpergewicht der Mutter (Ergebnisse einer Validierungsstudie).

INTRODUCTION: Birth weight is influenced by maternal anthropometry. The SGA-rate of newborns of short and light mothers (<158 cm,<53 kg) and the LGA-rate of tall and heavy mothers (>177 cm,>79 kg) are overestimated. The LGA-rate of newborns of shorter mothers and the SGA-rate of taller mothers are underestimated. Individualized birth weight percentiles (IBWP) based on 18 maternal groups (6 groups of height combined with 3 groups of weight), sex and weeks of gestation have been published. The aim of this study is to validate IBWP by evaluating SGA-, AGA-, and LGA-rates using perinatal data. METHODS: The validation study compares IBWP (1995 to 2000, n=2.2 million singletons) with percentile values from two German cohorts (i: 1995 to 2000; n=2.3 million and ii: 2007 to 2011, n=3.2 million singletons) using newborns from the Lower Saxony Perinatal Survey (n=0.56 million singleton newborns, 2001 to 2009). SGA-, AGA-, and LGA-rates were calculated using R statistical analysis. RESULTS: Common percentile charts based on the total population 1995-2000 and 2007-2011 yielded SGA-rates among shorter mothers of 21.1 to 21.6% and LGA-rates of 2.0 to 3.1%. In taller mothers, SGA-rates were 3.3 to 3.5% and LGA-rates were 26.6 to 27.1%. IBWP achieved SGA-rates of 9.0% and LGA-rates of 11.4 to 11.6% in shorter mothers and SGA- and LGA-rates of 10% in taller mothers. DISCUSSION: IBWP consider the maternal size for estimation of the fetal growth potential and achieve expected SGA- and LGA-rates of 10%. Consideration of individual growth potential avoids underestimation and overestimation of SGA- and LGA-rates. It aided analyses of birth weight with IBWP simplify the assessment of the nutritional status.

The cumulative impact of parity on the body mass index (BMI) in a non-selected Lower Saxony population.

OBJECTIVES: During the last decade obesity has been continuously rising in adults in industrial countries. The increased occurrence of perinatal complications caused by maternal obesity poses a major challenge for obstetricians during pregnancy and childbirth. This study aims to examine the association between parity, pregnancy, birth risks, and body mass index (BMI) of women from Lower Saxony, Germany. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study examined pseudonymized data of a non-selected singleton cohort from Lower Saxony's statewide quality assurance initiative. Mothers were categorized according to BMI as normal weight (18.5 to <25 kg/m2) or obese (≥30 kg/m2). RESULTS: Most of the mothers in this study population were either in their first (33.9%) or second pregnancy (43.4%). The mean age of women giving birth for the first time was 28.3 years. Maternal age increased with increasing parity. The proportion of pregnant women with a BMI over 30 was 11% in primiparous women, 14.3% in second para, 17.3% in third para and 24.1% in fourth para or more women. Increasing parity was positively correlated with the incidence of classical diseases related to obesity, namely diabetes mellitus, gestational diabetes, hypertension, pregnancy-related hypertension and urinary protein excretion. An increased risk of primary or secondary cesarean section was observed in the obese women, particularly during the first deliveries. CONCLUSIONS: There is a positive and significant correlation between parity and increased maternal BMI. The highest weight gain happens during the first pregnancy. The rate of operative deliveries and complications during delivery is increased in obese pregnant women.

C-reactive protein as a predictor of meningitis in early onset neonatal sepsis: a single unit experience.

Objectives To determine whether there is a cut off value of serum C-reactive protein (CRP) associated with a higher risk of meningitis in suspected early onset sepsis (EOS) (onset birth to 7 days of life). Methods A retrospective cohort study on neonates admitted in neonatal intensive care unit at McMaster Children's Hospital from January 2010 to 2017 and had lumbar puncture (LP) and CRP for workup of EOS. Included subjects had either (a) non-traumatic LP or (b) traumatic LP with cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) polymerase chain reaction or gram stain or culture-positive or had received antimicrobials for 21 days. Excluded were CSF done for metabolic errors, before cytomegalovirus (CMV) treatment; from ventriculo-peritoneal (VP) shunts; missing data and contamination. Neonates were classified into definite and probable meningitis and on the range of CRP. We calculated sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios for CRP values; and area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curve. Results Out of 609 CSF samples, 184 were eligible (28 cases of definite or probable meningitis and 156 controls). Sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, likelihood ratios, and AUROC were too low to be of clinical significance to predict meningitis in EOS. Conclusions Serum CRP values have poor discriminatory power to distinguish between subjects with and without meningitis, in symptomatic EOS.

Individualized birth length and head circumference percentile charts based on maternal body weight and height.

Objectives Measurement of birth length and birth head circumference is part of the newborn assessment. Both measurements aid in distinguishing between proportionate and disproportionate small and large for gestational age newborns. It had been shown that birth weight is related to maternal height and weight. This study aims to analyze birth length and birth head circumference percentiles based on maternal stature. Methods This observational study analyzed birth length and birth head circumference percentiles of 2.3 million newborns stratified by maternal height and weight from the first obstetric assessment. Percentiles were calculated for sex and 22-43 gestational weeks for all infants. Eighteen subgroups based on six maternal height and three weight strata were defined and percentiles calculated from 32 to 42 gestational weeks using GAMLSS package for R. Results Newborns of mothers with height <158 cm and weight <53 kg (short stature) had a rate of preterm birth of 9%, compared to 5% in the tall stature group (height >177 cm, weight >79 kg). Small stature mothers were 1.7 years younger. Birth length differed by several centimeters for the same percentiles between groups of short and tall stature mothers, whereas birth head circumference differed up to 1.2 cm. The largest deviation of birth length was between the 97th percentiles. For male newborns born at term, birth length at the 97th percentile differed by 3.2 cm, at the 50th percentile by 2.7 cm and at the third percentile by 2.5 cm. Conclusions Birth length and birth head circumference are related to maternal height and weight. To more completely assess newborns, the maternal size should be considered.

Individualized sex-specific birth weight percentiles for gestational age based on maternal height and weight.

OBJECTIVES: The maternal body size affects birth weight. The impact on birth weight percentiles is unknown. The objective of the study was to develop birth weight percentiles based on maternal height and weight. METHODS: This observational study analyzed 2.2 million singletons from the German Perinatal Survey. Data were stratified into 18 maternal height and weight groups. Sex-specific birth weight percentiles were calculated from 31 to 42 weeks and compared to percentiles from the complete dataset using the GAMLSS package for R statistics. RESULTS: Birth weight percentiles not considering maternal size showed 22% incidence of small for gestational age (SGA) and 2% incidence of large for gestational age (LGA) for the subgroup of newborns from petite mothers, compared to a 4% SGA and 26% LGA newborns from big mothers. The novel percentiles based on 18 groups stratified by maternal height and weight for both sexes showed significant differences between identical original percentiles. The differences were up to almost 800 g between identical percentiles for petite and big mothers. The 97th and 50th percentile from the group of petite mothers almost overlap with the 50th and 3rd percentile from the group of big mothers. CONCLUSIONS: There is a clinically significant difference in birth weight percentiles when stratified by maternal height and weight. It could be hypothesized that birth weight charts stratified by maternal anthropometry could provide higher specificity and more individual prediction of perinatal risks. The new percentiles may be used to evaluate estimated fetal as well as birth weight.

Gastric Residual Volume in Feeding Advancement in Preterm Infants (GRIP Study): A Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of not relying on prefeeding gastric residual volumes to guide feeding advancement on the time to reach full feeding volumes in preterm infants, compared with routine measurement of gastric residual volumes. We hypothesized that not measuring prefeeding gastric residual volumes can shorten the time to reach full feeds. STUDY DESIGN: In this single-center, randomized, controlled trial, we included gavage fed preterm infants with birth weights (BW) 1500-2000 g who were enrolled within 48 hours of birth. Exclusion criteria were major congenital malformations, asphyxia, and BW below the third percentile. In the study group, the gastric residual volume was measured only in the presence of bloody aspirates, vomiting, or an abnormal abdominal examination. In the control group, gastric residual volume was assessed routinely, and feeding advancement was based on the gastric residual volume. The primary outcome was the time to reach feeding volumes of 120 mL/kg per day. Secondary outcomes were time to regain BW, episodes of feeding interruptions, sepsis, and necrotizing enterocolitis. RESULTS: Eighty-seven infants were enrolled. There were no differences between the study and control groups with respect to time to reach full feeds (6 days [95% CI, 5.5-6.5] vs 5 days [95% CI, 4.5-5.5]; P = .82), time to regain BW, episodes of feeding interruptions, or sepsis. Two infants in the control group developed necrotizing enterocolitis. CONCLUSIONS: Avoiding routine assessment of gastric residual volume before feeding advancement did not shorten the time to reach full feeds in preterm infants with BW between 1500 and 2000 g. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01337622.

Maternal body height is a stronger predictor of birth weight than ethnicity: analysis of birth weight percentile charts.

Background Anthropometric parameters such as birth weight (BW) and adult body height vary between ethnic groups. Ethnic-specific percentile charts are currently being used for the assessment of newborns. However, due to globalization and interethnic families, it is unclear which charts should be used. A correlation between a mother's height and her child's BW (1 cm accounts for a 17 g increase in BW) has been observed. The study aims to test differences in small for gestational age (SGA) and large for gestational age (LGA) rates, employing BW percentile charts based on maternal height between ethnic groups. Methods This retrospective study of 2.3 million mother/newborn pairs analyzed BW, gestational age, sex, maternal height and ethnicity from the German perinatal survey (1995-2000). These data were stratified for maternal height (≤157, 158-163, 164-169, 170-175, ≥176 cm) and region of origin (Germany, Central and Northern Europe, North America, Mediterranean region, Eastern Europe, Middle East and North Africa, and Asia excluding Middle East). Percentile charts were calculated for each maternal height group. Results The average BW and maternal height differ significantly between ethnic groups. On current percentile charts, newborns of taller mothers (≥176 cm) have a low rate of SGA and a high rate of LGA, whereas newborns of shorter mothers (≤157 cm) have a high rate of SGA and a low rate of LGA. When the BW data are stratified based on the maternal height, mothers of similar height from different ethnic groups show similar average BWs, SGA and LGA rates. Conclusion Maternal body height has a greater influence on BW than maternal ethnicity. The use of BW percentile charts for maternal height should be considered.

Infrared analyzers for breast milk analysis: fat levels can influence the accuracy of protein measurements.

BACKGROUND: Currently, there is a growing interest in lacto-engineering in the neonatal intensive care unit, using infrared milk analyzers to rapidly measure the macronutrient content in breast milk before processing and feeding it to preterm infants. However, there is an overlap in the spectral information of different macronutrients, so they can potentially impact the robustness of the measurement. In this study, we investigate whether the measurement of protein is dependent on the levels of fat present while using an infrared milk analyzer. METHODS: Breast milk samples (n=25) were measured for fat and protein content before and after being completely defatted by centrifugation, using chemical reference methods and near-infrared milk analyzer (Unity SpectraStar) with two different calibration algorithms provided by the manufacturer (released 2009 and 2015). RESULTS: While the protein content remained unchanged, as measured by elemental analysis, measurements by infrared milk analyzer show a difference in protein measurements dependent on fat content; high fat content can lead to falsely high protein content. This difference is less pronounced when measured using the more recent calibration algorithm. CONCLUSIONS: Milk analyzer users must be cautious of their devices' measurements, especially if they are changing the matrix of breast milk using more advanced lacto-engineering.

Physiological adjustment to postnatal growth trajectories in healthy preterm infants.

BACKGROUND: International guidelines suggest that growth of preterm infants should match intrauterine rates. However, the trajectory for extrauterine growth may deviate from the birth percentile due to an irreversible, physiological loss of extracellular fluid during postnatal adaptation to extrauterine conditions. To which "new" physiological growth trajectory preterm infants should adjust to after completed postnatal adaptation is unknown. This study analyzes the postnatal growth trajectories of healthy preterm infants using prospective criteria defining minimal support, as a model for physiological adaptation. METHODS: International, multi-center, longitudinal, observational study at five neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Daily weights until day of life (DoL) 21 of infants with undisturbed postnatal adaptation were analyzed (gestational ages: (i) 25-29 wk, (ii) 30-34 wk). RESULTS: 981 out of 3,703 admitted infants included. Maximum weight loss was 11% (i) and 7% (ii) by DoL 5, birth weight regained by DoL 15 (i) and 13 (ii). Infants transitioned to growth trajectories parallel to Fenton chart percentiles, 0.8 z-scores below their birth percentiles. The new trajectory after completed postnatal adaptation could be predicted for DoL 21 with R(2) = 0.96. CONCLUSION: This study provides a robust estimate for physiological growth trajectories of infants after undisturbed postnatal adaptation. In the future, the concept of a target postnatal trajectory during NICU care may be useful.

Challenges in breast milk fortification for preterm infants.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To outline new evidence published from 2013 to 2014 about breast milk fortification in preterm infants. RECENT FINDINGS: Breast milk is the feeding choice for preterm infants because of its immunoprotective properties. However, breast milk's nutrient content is not sufficient for preterm infants, and interindividual variation is high. The variation challenges standard fortification, which assumes a standard breast milk composition. Two new fortification strategies (adjustable fortification and target fortification) optimize macronutrient intake and improve growth. Adjustable fortification uses blood urea nitrogen levels to adjust fortifier strength. Target fortification analyzes breast milk and fortifies macronutrients individually to achieve targeted intake. Its feasibility is shown in clinical routine. Current breast milk analyzers used for target fortification achieve acceptable precision for protein and fat but not for lactose and energy. Evidence of benefits for postdischarge breast milk fortification is lacking. Eliminating cow's milk products and feeding exclusively breast milk may decrease the occurrence of feeding intolerance and necrotizing enterocolitis. To facilitate exclusively breast milk diets, a collaboration of prenatal, nutrition and lactation stakeholders is key. Fortification increases osmolality; however, safety cutoffs to prevent necrotizing enterocolitis are unclear. There is also new evidence that composition and structure of various macronutrients and micronutrients affect growth and development, and might play a role in future fortification concepts. SUMMARY: Recent research focuses on the variability of breast milk composition, its impact on postnatal growth patterns and the usefulness of target fortification. As well, diets exclusively composed of human milk are a promising approach to improve feeding tolerance. For safe fortification, osmolality cutoff levels are needed.

Target fortification of breast milk: levels of fat, protein or lactose are not related.

AIM: Target fortification (TFO) of breast milk has the potential to improve the nutritional outcomes of preterm infants. However, the primary logistic constraint in introducing TFO is analysers that rapidly and accurately analyse macronutrients (fat, protein and lactose). In this prospective observational study, we aim to evaluate whether the levels of fat, protein and carbohydrate could be predicted from one key macronutrient. METHODS: Macronutrient components were measured in 543 breast milk samples using validated chemical micro-methods. Correlation analysis for fat versus protein, fat versus lactose and lactose versus protein was computed using Pearson's correlation. RESULTS: The concentration of the macronutrients ranged from 0.7 to 10.3 g/100 mL (3.7 ± 1.2, mean ± SD) for fat, 0.7 to 3.2 g/100 mL (1.3 ± 0.3) for protein and 4.0 to 8.8 g/100 mL (5.8 ± 0.7) for lactose, respectively. There was no correlation between the three macronutrients. CONCLUSION: This lack of correlation underlines the importance of routine and accurate analysis of all three macronutrients in breast milk prior to TFO.

Establishment of micromethods for macronutrient contents analysis in breast milk.

Commercially available milk analysers were originally developed for use in the dairy industry, but they are now used to analyse macronutrient content of breast milk in clinical studies and routine care of the premature or very low birthweight (VLBW) infants. Due to the different composition of cow and breast milk, these devices need to be validated against reference methods before they can be used in daily routine. However, current reference methods require a sample volume of 30-100 mL to analyse fat, protein and lactose. It is not feasible to obtain this volume of milk for research purposes, especially from VLBW infants as lactation may be delayed or impaired and the limited volume of breast milk must be provided to the infant. To support validation of milk analysers in both clinical and research settings, the aim of this study is to establish and validate micromethods for precise macronutrient analysis in small volume of breast milk and conduct a feasibility study of the micromethods as a post-validation. Methods include a modified Mojonnier ether extraction (fat), elemental analysis (protein) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (lactose). We were able to downsize volumes required for analysis of fat, protein and lactose to 1 mL, 260 µL and 100 µL; corresponding coefficients of variation are 1.7, 1.8 and 2.3%, respectively. The presented methods allow for reliable and precise analyses of macronutrients in ≤1.5 mL of breast milk and will be used to validate milk analysers.

An integrated array of microfluidic oxygenators as a neonatal lung assist device: in vitro characterization and in vivo demonstration.

A miniaturized oxygenator device that is perfused like an artificial placenta via the umbilical vessels may have significant potential to save the lives of newborns with respiratory insufficiency. Recently we presented the concept of an integrated modular lung assist device (LAD) that consists of stacked microfluidic single oxygenator units (SOUs) and demonstrated the technical details and operation of SOU prototypes. In this article, we present a LAD prototype that is designed to accommodate the different needs of term and preterm infants by permitting changing of the number of parallel-stacked microfluidic SOUs according to the actual body weight. The SOUs are made of polydimethylsiloxane, arranged in parallel, and connected though 3D-printed polymeric interconnects to form the LAD. The flow characteristics and the gas exchange properties were tested in vitro using human blood. We found that the pressure drop of the LAD increased linearly with flow rate. Gas exchange rates of 2.4-3.8 µL/min/cm(2) (0.3-0.5 mL/kg/min) and 6.4-10.1 µL/min/cm(2) (0.8-1.3 mL/kg/min) for O2 and CO2 , respectively, were achieved. We also investigated protein adsorption to provide preliminary information on the need for application of anticoagulant coating of LAD materials. Albumin adsorption, as measured by gold staining, showed that surface uptake was evenly distributed and occurred at the monolayer level (>0.2 µg/cm(2) ). Finally, we also tested the LAD under in vivo conditions using a newborn piglet model (body weight 1.65-2.0 kg). First, the effect of an arteriovenous bypass via a carotid artery-to-jugular vein shortcut on heart rate and blood pressure was investigated. Heart rate and mean arterial blood pressure remained stable for extracorporeal flow rates of up to 61 mL/kg/min (101 mL/min). Next, the LAD was connected to umbilical vessels (maximum flow rate of 24 mL/min [10.4 mL/kg/min]), and O2 gas exchange was measured under hypoxic conditions (Fi O2 = 0.15) and was found to be 3.0 µL/min/cm(2) . These results are encouraging and support the feasibility of an artificial placental design for an LAD.

Fatty acids from nutrition sources for preterm infants and their effect on plasma fatty acid profiles.

BACKGROUND: In preterm infants, IV administration of fat is less well tolerated compared to intake via the enteral route, often resulting in hypertriglyceridemia. It is therefore recommended that parenteral fat intake should not exceed 3.5 to 4.0 g/kg/d whereas human milk can provide up to 8 g/kg/d. It is unknown whether such hypertriglyceridemic conditions are caused by a uniform increase of all fatty acids or it is linked to an elevation of distinct fatty acids due to an unbalanced intake. Obviously, both scenarios could potentially influence the formulation of novel lipid solutions for preterm infants. Objective of this exploratory study was to compare fatty acid profiles between a) different nutritional sources and corresponding plasma samples, b) plasma of infants fed breast milk versus those receiving lipid emulsion, and c) plasma of infants with normal versus elevated triglyceride levels. METHODS: Forty-seven preterm infants < 36 weeks of gestation were included; fatty acid profiles were measured in serum samples and corresponding nutritional sources (breast milk and lipid emulsion) using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Compared to breast milk levels, plasma contained significantly lower C8:0, C10:0, C12:0, C14:0, C19:1n9, C18:3n3 (p < 0.0001). In contrast, relative abundance of C16:0, C18:0 and C20:4n6 was higher in plasma than in corresponding breast milk samples (p < 0.001) and lipid emulsion (p < 0.01). Compared to the corresponding lipid emulsion, the abundance of C18:2n6 and C18:3n3 was significantly lower in plasma (p < 0.001). Fatty acid profiles in plasma of infants fed breast milk compared to lipid emulsion were not markedly different. Hypertriglyceridemic samples showed elevated levels for C18:1n9 and C16:0 when compared with normotriglyceridemic samples. CONCLUSIONS: Our study reveals that lipid levels in plasma show both depletion and enrichment of distinct fatty acids which do not seem to be closely related to dietary intake. A more detailed understanding of fatty acid flux rates is needed, like the understanding of amino acid metabolism and is supported by the finding that hypertriglyceridemia might be a state of selective fatty acid accumulation. This would allow to develop more balanced diets for intensive care and potentially improve clinical outcomes.

Differential effects of growth restriction and immaturity on predicted psychomotor development at 4 years of age in preterm infants.

BACKGROUND: Fetal growth restriction and immaturity are associated with poor neurocognitive development and child psychopathology affecting educational success at school and beyond. However, the differential effects of either obstetrical risk factor on predicted psychomotor development have not yet been deciphered. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to separately study the impact of growth restriction and that of immaturity on predicted psychomotor development at the preschool age of 4.3 (standard deviation, 0.8) years using birthweight percentiles in a prospective cohort of preterm infants born at ≤37+6/7 weeks of gestation. Differences between small for gestational age newborns with intrauterine growth restriction and those without were described. We examined predicted total psychomotor development score, predicted developmental disability index, calculated morphometric vitality index, and predicted intelligence quotient, Porteus Maze test score, and neurologic examination optimality score in 854 preterm infants from a large prospective screening cohort (cranial ultrasound screening, n=5,301). STUDY DESIGN: This was a prospective cranial ultrasound screening study with a single-center cohort observational design (data collection done from 1984-1988, analysis done in 2022). The study included 5,301 live-born infants, of whom 854 (16.1%) were preterm infants (≤37+6/7 weeks' gestation), and was conducted on the day of discharge of the mother at 5 to 8 days postpartum from a level 3 perinatal center. Predicted psychomotor development, as assessed by the predicted total psychomotor development score, predicted developmental disability index, calculated morphometric vitality index, predicted intelligence quotient, Porteus Maze test score, and neurologic examination optimality score were calculated. We related psychomotor development indices and measures to gestational age in 3 groups of birthweight percentiles (ie, 10%, 50%, and 90% for small, appropriate, and large for gestational age newborns, respectively) using linear regression analysis, analysis of variance, multivariate analysis of variance, and t test procedures. RESULTS: The key result of our study is the observation that in preterm infants born at ≤37+6/7 weeks of gestation, growth restriction as compared with immaturity is the prime risk factor for impairment of overall predicted psychomotor development, intelligence quotient, Porteus Maze test results, and neurologic examination optimality score at the preschool age of 4.3 (standard deviation, 0.8) years (P<.001). This is particularly true for intrauterine growth restriction. These detrimental effects of growth restriction become more prominent with decreasing gestational age (P<.001). As expected, growth restriction in preterm infants born at ≤37+6/7 weeks of gestation was associated with a number of obstetrical risk factors, including hypertension in pregnancy (P<.001), multiple pregnancy (P<.001), pathologic cardiotocography (P=.001), and low pH (P=.007), increased pCO2 (P=.009), and poor pO2 (P<.001) in umbilical arterial blood. Of note, there were no differences in cerebral hemorrhage or white matter damage among small, appropriate, and large for gestational age birthweight percentile groups, suggesting an independent mechanism of brain injury caused by preterm growth restriction resulting in poor psychomotor development. CONCLUSION: Compared with immaturity, growth restriction in preterm infants has more intense detrimental effects on psychomotor development, necessitating improved risk stratification. This finding has implications for clinical management, parental consultation, and early intervention strategies to improve school performance, educational success, and mental health in children. The mechanisms of brain injury specific to growth restriction in preterm infants require further elucidation.