Candida albicans strains adapted to the mouse gut are resistant to bile salts via a Flo8-dependent mechanism.

Candidaalbicans normally colonizes the human gastrointestinal tract as a commensal. Studying fungal factors involved in colonizing the mammalian gastrointestinal tract requires mouse models with altered microbiota. We have obtained strains of C.albicans through microevolution in the mouse gut for a prolonged period (one year) that display a substantial increase in fitness in this niche. These strains show resistance to bile salts, an increase in their adhesion to the intestinal mucosa, and are unable to filament in response to serum. Genetic analysis revealed some alterations, mainly a triploidy of chr7, a whole chr6 homozygosis, and an SNP in the FLO8 gene (located in the chr6), resulting in a truncated protein version. A wild type FLO8 gene complemented filamentation and bile salt sensitivity, but showed an intermediate fitness phenotype in colonization. Alterations in bile salt sensitivity were also evident in bmt mutants, defective in ß-mannosylation, and transcriptional targets of Flo8, suggesting a link between the fungal cell wall and mammalian gut colonization via the Flo8 transcriptional regulator.

The protein kinase Ire1 impacts pathogenicity of Candida albicans by regulating homeostatic adaptation to endoplasmic reticulum stress.

The unfolded protein response (UPR), crucial for the maintenance of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis, is tied to the regulation of multiple cellular processes in pathogenic fungi. Here, we show that Candida albicans relies on an ER-resident protein, inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (Ire1) for sensing ER stress and activating the UPR. Compromised Ire1 function impacts cellular processes that are dependent on functional secretory homeostasis, as inferred from transcriptional profiling. Concordantly, an Ire1-mutant strain exhibits pleiotropic roles in ER stress response, antifungal tolerance, cell wall regulation and virulence-related traits. Hac1 is the downstream target of C. albicans Ire1 as it initiates the unconventional splicing of the 19 bp intron from HAC1 mRNA during tunicamycin-induced ER stress. Ire1 also activates the UPR in response to perturbations in cell wall integrity and cell membrane homeostasis in a manner that does not necessitate the splicing of HAC1 mRNA. Furthermore, the Ire1-mutant strain is severely defective in hyphal morphogenesis and biofilm formation as well as in establishing a successful infection in vivo. Together, these findings demonstrate that C. albicans Ire1 functions to regulate traits that are essential for virulence and suggest its importance in responding to multiple stresses, thus integrating various stress signals to maintain ER homeostasis.

Ifu5, a WW domain-containing protein interacts with Efg1 to achieve coordination of normoxic and hypoxic functions to influence pathogenicity traits in Candida albicans.

Hypoxic adaptation pathways, essential for Candida albicans pathogenesis, are tied to its transition from a commensal to a pathogen. Herein, we identify a WW domain-containing protein, Ifu5, as a determinant of hypoxic adaptation that also impacts normoxic responses in this fungus. Ifu5 activity supports glycosylation homeostasis via the Cek1 mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent up-regulation of PMT1, under normoxia. Transcriptome analysis of ifu5Δ/Δ under normoxia shows a significant up-regulation of the hypoxic regulator EFG1 and EFG1-dependent genes. We demonstrate physical interaction between Ifu5 by virtue of its WW domain and Efg1 that represses EFG1 expression under normoxia. This interaction is lost under hypoxic growth conditions, relieving EFG1 repression. Hypoxic adaptation processes such as filamentation and biofilm formation are affected in ifu5Δ/Δ cells revealing the role of Ifu5 in hypoxic signalling and modulating pathogenicity traits of C. albicans under varied oxygen conditions. Additionally, the WW domain of Ifu5 facilitates its role in hypoxic adaptation, revealing the importance of this domain in providing a platform to integrate various cellular processes. These data forge a relationship between Efg1 and Ifu5 that fosters the role of Ifu5 in hypoxic adaptation thus illuminating novel strategies to undermine the growth of C. albicans.

The MAPK Hog1 mediates the response to amphotericin B in Candida albicans.

The HOG MAP kinase pathway plays a crucial role in the response to different stresses in the opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans. The polyene amphotericin B (AMB) has been reported to trigger oxidative stress in several pathogenic fungi, including C. albicans. In the present work, we have analyzed the role of the MAPK Hog1 in sensing and survival to AMB treatment. Mutants lacking Hog1 are more susceptible to AMB than their parental strains and Hog1 became phosphorylated in the presence of this polyene. A set of mutated versions of Hog1 revealed that both the kinase activity and phosphorylation of Hog1 are required to cope with AMB treatment. Flow cytometry analysis showed that AMB induced intracellular ROS accumulation in both parental and hog1 null mutant strains. In addition, AMB triggered a Hog1-independent synthesis of trehalose. The addition of rotenone to AMB-treated cells improved cell viability, decreased intracellular ROS and prevented intracellular trehalose accumulation, suggesting that AMB-induced ROS is associated to a functional electron transport chain but the presence of rotenone did not impair Hog1 phosphorylation in AMB-treated cells. Our results indicate that Hog1 is necessary during AMB treatment to increase its survival.

The HOG MAPK pathway in Candida albicans: more than an osmosensing pathway.

In 1993, Brewster and Gustin described the existence of a kinase whose activity was essential for Saccharomyces cerevisiae to grow in environments with high osmolarity. This led to the discovery of the HOG pathway, a MAP kinase (MAPK) pathway that has been revealed to be crucial to respond to a wide range of stress conditions frequently encountered by fungi in their common habitats. MAPK signaling is initiated at the plasma membrane, where triggering stimuli lead to a phosphorylation cascade that ultimately activates transcription factors to ensure an appropriate adaptive response. In pathogenic fungi, the HOG pathway gains special significance as it is involved in traits related to pathogenicity; these include biofilm formation, adhesion to surfaces, and morphogenetic and epigenetic transitions. It also plays a role in controlling both the pathogen and the commensal state program. Understanding the signals leading to its activation, the elements of the pathways and the targets of the pathway are therefore of primary importance in the design of novel antifungals.

Cell Wall Changes in Amphotericin B-Resistant Strains from Candida tropicalis and Relationship with the Immune Responses Elicited by the Host.

We have morphologically characterizedCandida tropicalisisolates resistant to amphotericin B (AmB). These isolates present an enlarged cell wall compared to isolates of regular susceptibility. This correlated with higher levels of ß-1,3-glucan in the cell wall but not with detectable changes in chitin content. In line with this, AmB-resistant strains showed reduced susceptibility to Congo red. Moreover, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) involved in cell integrity were already activated during regular growth in these strains. Finally, we investigated the response elicited by human blood cells and found that AmB-resistant strains induced a stronger proinflammatory response than susceptible strains. In agreement, AmB-resistant strains also induced stronger melanization ofGalleria mellonellalarvae, indicating that the effect of alterations of the cell wall on the immune response is conserved in different types of hosts. Our results suggest that resistance to AmB is associated with pleiotropic mechanisms that might have important consequences, not only for the efficacy of the treatment but also for the immune response elicited by the host.

The activity of RTA2, a downstream effector of the calcineurin pathway, is required during tunicamycin-induced ER stress response in Candida albicans.

In this study, we demonstrate a novel function of a downstream effector molecule of the calcineurin pathway, RTA2 (Resistance To Aminocholesterol), in ER stress response. The deletion of RTA2 increases susceptibility to the ER stressor tunicamycin and morpholine-like drug, 7-aminocholesterol. Additionally, the expression of RTA2 is also transcriptionally induced by ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors and cell-wall-damaging agents. As tunicamycin induces the unfolded protein response pathway (UPR) via the transcription factor, HAC1, we monitored the expression of a subset of HAC1-dependent UPR target genes in rta2Δ/Δ cells. Upon tunicamycin exposure, rta2Δ/Δ cells displayed a significantly reduced expression of UPR genes, in spite of only a moderate decrease in the HAC1 spliced mRNA levels and no change in Hac1 protein levels. Furthermore, hac1Δ/Δrta2Δ/Δ cells display an exacerbated sensitivity to tunicamycin compared to the single mutants. We propose that functional RTA2 is requisite for the regulation of Hac1p-dependent UPR target genes to maximal levels, thereby assisting survival during ER stress. Collectively, this study proposes, for the first time, existence of an interplay between the Hac1p- and calcineurin- controlled networks via a downstream effector molecule of the latter, RTA2, to facilitate survival during ER stress in Candida albicans.

The production of reactive oxygen species is a universal action mechanism of Amphotericin B against pathogenic yeasts and contributes to the fungicidal effect of this drug.

Amphotericin B (AMB) is an antifungal drug that binds to ergosterol and forms pores at the cell membrane, causing the loss of ions. In addition, AMB induces the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and although these molecules have multiple deleterious effects on fungal cells, their specific role in the action mechanism of AMB remains unknown. In this work, we studied the role of ROS in the action mechanism of AMB. We determined the intracellular induction of ROS in 44 isolates of different pathogenic yeast species (Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis, Candida glabrata, Candida tropicalis, Candida krusei, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Cryptococcus gattii). We also characterized the production of ROS in AMB-resistant isolates. We found that AMB induces the formation of ROS in all the species tested. The inhibition of the mitochondrial respiratory chain by rotenone blocked the induction of ROS by AMB and provided protection from the killing action of the antifungal. Moreover, this phenomenon was absent in strains that displayed resistance to AMB. These strains showed an alteration in the respiration rate and mitochondrial membrane potential and also had higher catalase activity than that of the AMB-susceptible strains. Consistently, AMB failed to induce protein carbonylation in the resistant strains. Our data demonstrate that the production of ROS by AMB is a universal and important action mechanism that is correlated with the fungicidal effect and might explain the low rate of resistance to the molecule. Finally, these data provide an opportunity to design new strategies to improve the efficacy of this antifungal.

Msb2 shedding protects Candida albicans against antimicrobial peptides.

Msb2 is a sensor protein in the plasma membrane of fungi. In the human fungal pathogen C. albicans Msb2 signals via the Cek1 MAP kinase pathway to maintain cell wall integrity and allow filamentous growth. Msb2 doubly epitope-tagged in its large extracellular and small cytoplasmic domain was efficiently cleaved during liquid and surface growth and the extracellular domain was almost quantitatively released into the growth medium. Msb2 cleavage was independent of proteases Sap9, Sap10 and Kex2. Secreted Msb2 was highly O-glycosylated by protein mannosyltransferases including Pmt1 resulting in an apparent molecular mass of >400 kDa. Deletion analyses revealed that the transmembrane region is required for Msb2 function, while the large N-terminal and the small cytoplasmic region function to downregulate Msb2 signaling or, respectively, allow its induction by tunicamycin. Purified extracellular Msb2 domain protected fungal and bacterial cells effectively from antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) histatin-5 and LL-37. AMP inactivation was not due to degradation but depended on the quantity and length of the Msb2 glycofragment. C. albicans msb2 mutants were supersensitive to LL-37 but not histatin-5, suggesting that secreted rather than cell-associated Msb2 determines AMP protection. Thus, in addition to its sensor function Msb2 has a second activity because shedding of its glycofragment generates AMP quorum resistance.

Morphogenetic transitions in the adaptation of Candida albicans to the mammalian gut.

Candida albicans is a pathobiont in humans that forms part of the mycobiota in healthy individuals and can cause different pathologies upon alterations of the host defenses. The mammalian gut is clinically relevant as this niche is the most common pool for bloodstream-derived infections. The ability of C. albicans to switch from yeast to hypha has been related to the commensal-to-pathogen transition and is, therefore, considered relevant in virulence. Recently, filaments have been implicated in the humoral response in the gut. C. albicans exhibits other morphologies that play different roles in pathogenicity and commensalism. This review focuses on the role of these morphological transitions in C. albicans proliferation and its establishment as a commensal in the mammalian gut, paying special attention to the transcription factors involved in their regulation.

Mitochondria influence CDR1 efflux pump activity, Hog1-mediated oxidative stress pathway, iron homeostasis, and ergosterol levels in Candida albicans.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in Candida albicans is known to be associated with drug susceptibility, cell wall integrity, phospholipid homeostasis, and virulence. In this study, we deleted CaFZO1, a key component required during biogenesis of functional mitochondria. Cells with FZO1 deleted displayed fragmented mitochondria, mitochondrial genome loss, and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and were rendered sensitive to azoles and peroxide. In order to understand the cellular response to dysfunctional mitochondria, genome-wide expression profiling of fzo1Δ/Δ cells was performed. Our results show that the increased susceptibility to azoles was likely due to reduced efflux activity of CDR efflux pumps, caused by the missorting of Cdr1p into the vacuole. In addition, fzo1Δ/Δ cells showed upregulation of genes involved in iron assimilation, in iron-sufficient conditions, characteristic of iron-starved cells. One of the consequent effects was downregulation of genes of the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway with a commensurate decrease in cellular ergosterol levels. We therefore connect deregulated iron metabolism to ergosterol biosynthesis pathway in response to dysfunctional mitochondria. Impaired activation of the Hog1 pathway in the mutant was the basis for increased susceptibility to peroxide and increase in reactive oxygen species, indicating the importance of functional mitochondria in controlling Hog1-mediated oxidative stress response. Mitochondrial phospholipid levels were also altered as indicated by an increase in phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine and decrease in phosphatidylcholine in fzo1Δ/Δ cells. Collectively, these findings reinforce the connection between functional mitochondria and azole tolerance, oxidant-mediated stress, and iron homeostasis in C. albicans.

The transmembrane protein Opy2 mediates activation of the Cek1 MAP kinase in Candida albicans.

MAPK pathways are conserved and complex mechanisms of signaling in eukaryotic cells. These pathways mediate adaptation to different stress conditions by a core kinase cascade that perceives changes in the environment by different upstream elements and mediates adaptation through transcription factors. In the present work, the transmembrane protein Opy2 has been identified and functionally characterized in Candida albicans. This protein is required to trigger Cek1 phosphorylation by different stimuli such as the resumption of growth from stationary phase or the addition of the cell wall disturbing compounds zymolyase and tunicamycin. opy2 mutants display susceptibility to cell wall disturbing compounds like Congo red. However, it does not play a role in the adaptation to high osmolarity or oxidative stress, in close contrast with the situation for the homologous protein in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The over-expression of Opy2 in a S. cerevisiae opy2ssk1 mutant partially complemented the osmosensitivity on solid medium by a Hog1-independent mechanism as well as the abnormal morphology observed in this mutant under high osmolarity. The electrophoretic pattern of CaOpy2 tagged version in S. cerevisiae suggested similar post-translational modification in both microorganisms. This protein is also involved in pathogenesis as revealed by the fact that opy2 mutants displayed a significantly reduced virulence in the Galleria mellonella model.

The defective gut colonization of Candida albicans hog1 MAPK mutants is restored by overexpressing the transcriptional regulator of the white opaque transition WOR1.

The transcriptional master regulator of the white opaque transition of Candida albicans WOR1 is important for the adaptation to the commensal lifestyle in the mammalian gut, a major source of invasive candidiasis. We have generated cells that overproduce Wor1 in mutants defective in the Hog1 MAP kinase, defective in several stress responses and unable to colonize the mice gut. WOR1 overexpression allows hog1 to be established as a commensal in the murine gut in a commensalism model and even compete with wild-type C. albicans cells for establishment. This increased fitness correlates with an enhanced ability to adhere to biotic surfaces as well as increased proteinase and phospholipase production and a decrease in filamentation in vitro. We also show that hog1 WOR1OE are avirulent in a systemic candidiasis model in mice.

Overexpression of the White Opaque Switching Master Regulator Wor1 Alters Lipid Metabolism and Mitochondrial Function in Candida albicans.

Candida albicans is a commensal yeast that inhabits the gastrointestinal tract of humans; increased colonization of this yeast in this niche has implicated the master regulator of the white-opaque transition, Wor1, by mechanisms not completely understood. We have addressed the role that this transcription factor has on commensalism by the characterization of strains overexpressing this gene. We show that WOR1 overexpression causes an alteration of the total lipid content of the fungal cell and significantly alters the composition of structural and reserve molecular species lipids as determined by lipidomic analysis. These cells are hypersensitive to membrane-disturbing agents such as SDS, have increased tolerance to azoles, an augmented number of peroxisomes, and increased phospholipase activity. WOR1 overexpression also decreases mitochondrial activity and results in altered susceptibility to certain oxidants. All together, these changes reflect drastic alterations in the cellular physiology that facilitate adaptation to the gastrointestinal tract environment.

CRISPR-Cas9 approach confirms Calcineurin-responsive zinc finger 1 (Crz1) transcription factor as a promising therapeutic target in echinocandin-resistant Candida glabrata.

Invasive fungal infections, which kill more than 1.6 million patients each year worldwide, are difficult to treat due to the limited number of antifungal drugs (azoles, echinocandins, and polyenes) and the emergence of antifungal resistance. The transcription factor Crz1, a key regulator of cellular stress responses and virulence, is an attractive therapeutic target because this protein is absent in human cells. Here, we used a CRISPR-Cas9 approach to generate isogenic crz1Δ strains in two clinical isolates of caspofungin-resistant C. glabrata to analyze the role of this transcription factor in susceptibility to echinocandins, stress tolerance, biofilm formation, and pathogenicity in both non-vertebrate (Galleria mellonella) and vertebrate (mice) models of candidiasis. In these clinical isolates, CRZ1 disruption restores the susceptibility to echinocandins in both in vitro and in vivo models, and affects their oxidative stress response, biofilm formation, cell size, and pathogenicity. These results strongly suggest that Crz1 inhibitors may play an important role in the development of novel therapeutic agents against fungal infections considering the emergence of antifungal resistance and the low number of available antifungal drugs.

Adaptation to Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Candida albicans Relies on the Activity of the Hog1 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase.

Adaptation to ER stress is linked to the pathogenicity of C. albicans. The fungus responds to ER stress primarily by activating the conserved Ire1-Hac1-dependent unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway. Subsequently, when ER homeostasis is re-established, the UPR is attenuated in a timely manner, a facet that is unexplored in C. albicans. Here, we show that C. albicans licenses the HOG (high-osmolarity glycerol) MAPK pathway for abating ER stress as evidenced by activation and translocation of Hog1 to the nucleus during tunicamycin-induced ER stress. We find that, once activated, Hog1 attenuates the activity of Ire1-dependent UPR, thus facilitating adaptation to ER stress. We use the previously established assay, where the disappearance of the UPR-induced spliced HAC1 mRNA correlates with the re-establishment of ER homeostasis, to investigate attenuation of the UPR in C. albicans. hog1Δ/Δ cells retain spliced HAC1 mRNA levels for longer duration reflecting the delay in attenuating Ire1-dependent UPR. Conversely, compromising the expression of Ire1 (ire1 DX mutant strain) results in diminished levels of phosphorylated Hog1, restating the cross-talk between Ire1 and HOG pathways. Phosphorylation signal to Hog1 MAP kinase is relayed through Ssk1 in response to ER stress as inactivation of Ssk1 abrogates Hog1 phosphorylation in C. albicans. Additionally, Hog1 depends on its cytosolic as well as nuclear activity for mediating ER stress-specific responses in the fungus. Our results show that HOG pathway serves as a point of cross-talk with the UPR pathway, thus extending the role of this signaling pathway in promoting adaptation to ER stress in C. albicans. Additionally, this study integrates this MAPK pathway into the little known frame of ER stress adaptation pathways in C. albicans.

The Glyoxylate Cycle Is Involved in White-Opaque Switching in Candida albicans.

Candida albicans is a commensal yeast that inhabits the gastrointestinal tract of humans. The master regulator of the white-opaque transition WOR1 has been implicated in the adaptation to this commensal status. A proteomic analysis of cells overexpressing this transcription factor (WOR1OE) suggested an altered metabolism of carbon sources and a phenotypic analysis confirmed this alteration. The WOR1OE cells are deficient in using trehalose and xylose and are unable to use 2C sources, which is consistent with a reduction in the amount of Icl1, the isocitrate lyase enzyme. The icl1Δ/Δ mutants overexpressing WOR1 are deficient in the production of phloxine B positive cells, a main characteristic of opaque cells, a phenotype also observed in mating type hemizygous mtla1Δ icl1Δ/Δ cells, suggesting the involvement of Icl1 in the adaptation to the commensal state. In fact, icl1Δ/Δ cells have reduced fitness in mouse gastrointestinal tract as compared with essentially isogenic heterozygous ICL1/icl1Δ, but overproduction of WOR1 in an icl1Δ/Δ mutant does not restore fitness. These results implicate the glyoxylate shunt in the adaptation to commensalism of C. albicans by mechanisms that are partially independent of WOR1.

Identification of Clinical Isolates of Candida albicans with Increased Fitness in Colonization of the Murine Gut.

The commensal and opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans is an important cause of fungal diseases in humans, with the gastrointestinal tract being an important reservoir for its infections. The study of the mechanisms promoting the C. albicans commensal state has attracted considerable attention over the last few years, and several studies have focused on the identification of the intestinal human mycobiota and the characterization of Candida genes involved in its establishment as a commensal. In this work, we have barcoded 114 clinical C. albicans isolates to identify strains with an enhanced fitness in a murine gastrointestinal commensalism model. The 114 barcoded clinical isolates were pooled in four groups of 28 to 30 strains that were inoculated by gavage in mice previously treated with antibacterial therapy. Eight strains that either exhibited higher colonization load and/or remained in the gut after antibiotic removal were selected. The phenotypic analysis of these strains compared to an RFP-tagged SC5314 wild type strain did not reveal any specific trait associated with its increased colonization; all strains were able to filament and six of the eight strains displayed invasive growth on Spider medium. Analysis of one of these strains, CaORAL3, revealed that although mice required previous bacterial microbiota reduction with antibiotics to be able to be colonized, removal of this procedure could take place the same day (or even before) Candida inoculation. This strain was able to colonize the intestine of mice already colonized with Candida without antibiotic treatment in co-housing experiments. CaORAL3 was also able to be established as a commensal in mice previously colonized by another (CaHG43) or the same (CaORAL3) C. albicans strain. Therefore, we have identified C. albicans isolates that display higher colonization load than the standard strain SC5314 which will surely facilitate the analysis of the factors that regulate fungal colonization.

Mycobiota-induced IgA antibodies regulate fungal commensalism in the gut and are dysregulated in Crohn's disease.

Secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) plays an important role in gut barrier protection by shaping the resident microbiota community, restricting the growth of bacterial pathogens and enhancing host protective immunity via immunological exclusion. Here, we found that a portion of the microbiota-driven sIgA response is induced by and directed towards intestinal fungi. Analysis of the human gut mycobiota bound by sIgA revealed a preference for hyphae, a fungal morphotype associated with virulence. Candida albicans was a potent inducer of IgA class-switch recombination among plasma cells, via an interaction dependent on intestinal phagocytes and hyphal programming. Characterization of sIgA affinity and polyreactivity showed that hyphae-associated virulence factors were bound by these antibodies and that sIgA influenced C. albicans morphotypes in the murine gut. Furthermore, an increase in granular hyphal morphologies in patients with Crohn's disease compared with healthy controls correlated with a decrease in antifungal sIgA antibody titre with affinity to two hyphae-associated virulence factors. Thus, in addition to its importance in gut bacterial regulation, sIgA targets the uniquely fungal phenomenon of hyphal formation. Our findings indicate that antifungal sIgA produced in the gut can play a role in regulating intestinal fungal commensalism by coating fungal morphotypes linked to virulence, thereby providing a protective mechanism that might be dysregulated in patients with Crohn's disease.