iPSC-derived hindbrain organoids to evaluate escitalopram oxalate treatment responses targeting neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, and the gradual deterioration of brain function eventually leads to death. Almost all AD patients suffer from neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS), the emergence of which correlates with dysfunctional serotonergic systems. Our aim is to generate hindbrain organoids containing serotonergic neurons using human induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs). Work presented here is laying the groundwork for the application of hindbrain organoids to evaluate individual differences in disease progression, NPS development, and pharmacological treatment response. Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy volunteers (n = 3), an AD patient without NPS (n = 1), and AD patients with NPS (n = 2) were reprogrammed into iPSCs and subsequently differentiated into hindbrain organoids. The presence of serotonergic neurons was confirmed by quantitative reverse transcription PCR, flow cytometry, immunocytochemistry, and detection of released serotonin (5-HT). We successfully reprogrammed PBMCs into 6 iPSC lines, and subsequently generated hindbrain organoids from 6 individuals to study inter-patient variability using a precision medicine approach. To assess patient-specific treatment effects, organoids were treated with different concentrations of escitalopram oxalate, commonly prescribed for NPS. Changes in 5-HT levels before and after treatment with escitalopram were dose-dependent and variable across patients. Organoids from different people responded differently to the application of escitalopram in vitro. We propose that this 3D platform might be effectively used for drug screening purposes to predict patients with NPS most likely to respond to treatment in vivo and to understand the heterogeneity of treatment responses.

The Relationship Between First Presenting Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Older Adults and Autopsy-Confirmed Memory Disorders.

OBJECTIVES: Although dementia is typically considered a disease of cognitive decline, almost all patients present with neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) at some stage of their disease. Few studies have assessed the timing of NPS onset in relation to pathological diagnoses of neurodegenerative diseases. We sought to examine the association between the first presenting clinically significant NPS in aging individuals and neuropathological diagnoses of memory disorders. DESIGN: This retrospective longitudinal cohort study utilized the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center (NACC) dataset, which includes participant data from 37 Alzheimer's Disease Research Centers collected between 2005 and 2022. PARTICIPANTS: Participants (N = 5,416) aged 45 years or older with Clinical Dementia Rating-Global ratings of less than or equal to 1 were included in this analysis. A total of 4,033 (74.5%) participants presented with at least one NPS at any NACC visit. MEASUREMENTS: To measure first NPS, the NACCBEHF variable was used, a clinician-rated variable defined as "the predominant symptom that was first recognized as a decline in the subject's behavior." Neuropathologic variables included assessments of Alzheimer's Disease, Frontotemporal Dementia, Lewy Body Dementia, Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy, Hippocampal Sclerosis, and Cerebrovascular Disease. RESULTS: Presentation with any clinically significant first NPS was associated with several neuropathological diagnoses including Alzheimer's Disease, Frontotemporal Lobar Dementia with TDP-43 pathology, and Lewy Body Dementia. While specific first NPS were associated with Frontotemporal Dementia neuropathology (personality change and disinhibition) and Lewy Body Dementia neuropathology (psychosis and REM behavior disturbance), Alzheimer's Disease neuropathology was associated with the majority of NPS. CONCLUSIONS: Since neuropsychiatric symptoms are frequently the first presenting symptom of dementia, their associations with well-defined neuropathological diagnoses may help clinicians predict the subtype of future dementias.

Adverse effects of methylphenidate for apathy in patients with Alzheimer's disease (ADMET2 trial).

OBJECTIVES: To examine clinically important adverse events (AEs) associated with methylphenidate (MPH) treatment of apathy in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) versus placebo, including weight loss, vital signs, falls, and insomnia. METHODS: The Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial 2 (ADMET2) trial was a multicenter randomized, placebo-controlled trial of MPH to treat apathy in individuals with apathy and AD. Participants in ADMET2 had vital signs and weight measured at monthly visits through 6 months. AEs, including insomnia, falls, and cardiovascular events, were reported at every visit by participants and families using a symptom checklist. RESULTS: The study included 98 participants in the MPH group and 101 in the placebo group. Participants in the MPH group experienced greater weight loss on average than the placebo through the 6-month follow-up, with a difference in change between MPH and placebo of 2.8 lb (95% confidence interval, CI: 0.7, 4.9 lb). No treatment group differences in change during the trial were found in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. More participants in the MPH group reported falls during the follow-up, 10 versus 6 in MPH and placebo groups, respectively. No differences in post-baseline insomnia were observed between the treatment groups. No participants reported instances of myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, arrhythmia, stroke, or cardiomyopathy throughout the study period. CONCLUSIONS: MPH use in AD patients for treating apathy is relatively safe, particularly notable given the many medical comorbidities in this population. There was a statistically significant but modest weight loss associated with MPH use, and clinicians are thus advised to monitor weight during MPH treatment.

Reduction and prevention of agitation in persons with neurocognitive disorders: an international psychogeriatric association consensus algorithm.

OBJECTIVES: To develop an agitation reduction and prevention algorithm is intended to guide implementation of the definition of agitation developed by the International Psychogeriatric Association (IPA). DESIGN: Review of literature on treatment guidelines and recommended algorithms; algorithm development through reiterative integration of research information and expert opinion. SETTING: IPA Agitation Workgroup. PARTICIPANTS: IPA panel of international experts on agitation. INTERVENTION: Integration of available information into a comprehensive algorithm. MEASUREMENTS: None. RESULTS: The IPA Agitation Work Group recommends the Investigate, Plan, and Act (IPA) approach to agitation reduction and prevention. A thorough investigation of the behavior is followed by planning and acting with an emphasis on shared decision-making; the success of the plan is evaluated and adjusted as needed. The process is repeated until agitation is reduced to an acceptable level and prevention of recurrence is optimized. Psychosocial interventions are part of every plan and are continued throughout the process. Pharmacologic interventions are organized into panels of choices for nocturnal/circadian agitation; mild-moderate agitation or agitation with prominent mood features; moderate-severe agitation; and severe agitation with threatened harm to the patient or others. Therapeutic alternatives are presented for each panel. The occurrence of agitation in a variety of venues-home, nursing home, emergency department, hospice-and adjustments to the therapeutic approach are presented. CONCLUSIONS: The IPA definition of agitation is operationalized into an agitation management algorithm that emphasizes the integration of psychosocial and pharmacologic interventions, reiterative assessment of response to treatment, adjustment of therapeutic approaches to reflect the clinical situation, and shared decision-making.

Agitation in cognitive disorders: Progress in the International Psychogeriatric Association consensus clinical and research definition.

BACKGROUND: The International Psychogeriatric Association (IPA) published a provisional consensus definition of agitation in cognitive disorders in 2015. As proposed by the original work group, we summarize the use and validation of criteria in order to remove "provisional" from the definition. METHODS: This report summarizes information from the academic literature, research resources, clinical guidelines, expert surveys, and patient and family advocates on the experience of use of the IPA definition. The information was reviewed by a working group of topic experts to create a finalized definition. RESULTS: We present a final definition which closely resembles the provisional definition with modifications to address special circumstances. We also summarize the development of tools for diagnosis and assessment of agitation and propose strategies for dissemination and integration into precision diagnosis and agitation interventions. CONCLUSION: The IPA definition of agitation captures a common and important entity that is recognized by many stakeholders. Dissemination of the definition will permit broader detection and can advance research and best practices for care of patients with agitation.

Measuring clinically relevant change in apathy symptoms in ADMET and ADMET 2.

OBJECTIVES: Among participants with Alzheimer's disease (AD) we estimated the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) in apathy symptom severity on three scales. DESIGN: Retrospective anchor- and distribution-based analyses of change in apathy symptom scores. SETTING: Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial (ADMET) and ADMET 2 randomized controlled trials conducted at three and ten clinics specialized in dementia care in United States and Canada, respectively. PARTICIPANTS: Two hundred and sixty participants (60 ADMET, 200 ADMET 2) with clinically significant apathy in Alzheimer's disease. MEASUREMENTS: The Clinical Global Impression of Change in Apathy scale was used as the anchor measure and the MCID on the Neuropsychiatric Inventory - Apathy (NPI-A), Dementia Apathy Interview and Rating (DAIR), and Apathy Evaluation Scale-Informant (AES-I) were estimated with linear mixed models across all study visits. The estimated thresholds were evaluated with performance metrics. RESULTS: Among the MCID was a decrease of four points (95% CI: -4.0 to -4.8) on the NPI-A, 0.56 points (95% CI: -0.47 to -0.65) on the DAIR, and three points on the AES-I (95% CI: -0.9 to -5.4). Distribution-based analyses were largely consistent with the anchor-based analyses. The MCID across the three measures showed ∼60% accuracy. Sensitivity analyses found that MMSE scores and apathy severity at baseline influenced the estimated MCID. CONCLUSIONS: MCIDs for apathy on three scales will help evaluate treatment efficacy at the individual level. However, the modest correspondence between MCID and clinical impression of change suggests the need to consider other scales.

Impact of motor dysfunction on neuropsychiatric symptom profile in patients with autopsy-confirmed Alzheimer's disease.

Motor dysfunction, which includes changes in gait, balance, and/or functional mobility, is a lesser-known feature of Alzheimer's Disease (AD), especially as it relates to the development of neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS). This study (1) compared rates of NPS between autopsy-confirmed AD patients with and without early-onset motor dysfunction and (2) compared rates of non-AD dementia autopsy pathology (Lewy Body disease, Frontotemporal Lobar degeneration) between these groups. This retrospective longitudinal cohort study utilized National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center (NACC) data. Participants (N = 856) were required to have moderate-to-severe autopsy-confirmed AD, Clinical Dementia Rating-Global scores of ≤1 at their index visit, and NPS and clinician-rated motor data. Early motor dysfunction was associated with significantly higher NPI-Q total scores (T = 4.48, p < .001) and higher odds of delusions (OR [95%CI]: 1.73 [1.02-2.96]), hallucinations (2.45 [1.35-4.56]), depression (1.51 [1.11-2.06]), irritability (1.50 [1.09-2.08]), apathy (1.70 [1.24-2.36]), anxiety (1.38 [1.01-1.90]), nighttime behaviors (1.98 [1.40-2.81]), and appetite/eating problems (1.56 [1.09-2.25]). Early motor dysfunction was also associated with higher Lewy Body disease pathology (1.41 [1.03-1.93]), but not Frontotemporal Lobar degeneration (1.10 [0.71-1.69]), on autopsy. Our results suggest that motor symptoms in early AD are associated with a higher number and severity of NPS, which may be partially explained by comorbid non-AD neuropathology.

Cerebrovascular reactivity MRI as a biomarker for cerebral small vessel disease-related cognitive decline: Multi-site validation in the MarkVCID Consortium.

INTRODUCTION: Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID) represent a major factor in cognitive decline in older adults. The present study examined the relationship between cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) measured by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and cognitive function in a multi-site study, using a predefined hypothesis. METHODS: We conducted the study in a total of three analysis sites and 263 subjects. Each site performed an identical CVR MRI procedure using 5% carbon dioxide inhalation. A global cognitive measure of Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and an executive function measure of item response theory (IRT) score were used as outcomes. RESULTS: CVR and MoCA were positively associated, and this relationship was reproduced at all analysis sites. CVR was found to be positively associated with executive function. DISCUSSION: The predefined hypothesis on the association between CVR and a global cognitive score was validated in three independent analysis sites, providing support for CVR as a biomarker in VCID. HIGHLIGHTS: This study measured a novel functional index of small arteries referred to as cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR). CVR was positively associated with global cognition in older adults. This finding was observed in three independent cohorts at three sites. Our statistical analysis plan was predefined before beginning data collection.

Heterogeneity of Response to Methylphenidate in Apathetic Patients in the ADMET 2 Trial.

OBJECTIVE: The Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial 2 (ADMET 2) found that methylphenidate was effective in treating apathy with a small-to-medium effect size but showed heterogeneity in response. We assessed clinical predictors of response to help determine individual likelihood of treatment benefit from methylphenidate. DESIGN: Univariate and multivariate analyses of 22 clinical predictors of response chosen a priori. SETTING: Data from the ADMET 2 randomized, placebo controlled multi-center clinical trial. PARTICIPANTS: Alzheimer's disease patients with clinically significant apathy. MEASUREMENTS: Apathy assessed with the Neuropsychiatric Inventory apathy domain (NPI-A). RESULTS: In total, 177 participants (67% male, mean [SD] age 76.4 [7.9], mini-mental state examination 19.3 [4.8]) had 6-months follow up data. Six potential predictors met criteria for inclusion in multivariate modeling. Methylphenidate was more efficacious in participants without NPI anxiety (change in NPI-A -2.21, standard error [SE]:0.60) or agitation (-2.63, SE:0.68), prescribed cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEI) (-2.44, SE:0.62), between 52 and 72 years of age (-2.93, SE:1.05), had 73-80 mm Hg diastolic blood pressure (-2.43, SE: 1.03), and more functional impairment (-2.56, SE:1.16) as measured by the Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study Activities of Daily Living scale. CONCLUSION: Individuals who were not anxious or agitated, younger, prescribed a ChEI, with optimal (73-80 mm Hg) diastolic blood pressure, or having more impaired function were more likely to benefit from methylphenidate compared to placebo. Clinicians may preferentially consider methylphenidate for apathetic AD participants already prescribed a ChEI and without baseline anxiety or agitation.

Cost consequence analysis of Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial 2 (ADMET 2).

BACKGROUND: This paper used data from the Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial 2 (NCT02346201) to conduct a planned cost consequence analysis to investigate whether treatment of apathy with methylphenidate is economically attractive. METHODS: A total of 167 patients with clinically significant apathy randomized to either methylphenidate or placebo were included. The Resource Utilization in Dementia Lite instrument assessed resource utilization for the past 30 days and the EuroQol five dimension five level questionnaire assessed health utility at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months. Resources were converted to costs using standard sources and reported in 2021 USD. A repeated measures analysis of variance compared change in costs and utility over time between the treatment and placebo groups. A binary logistic regression was used to assess cost predictors. RESULTS: Costs were not significantly different between groups whether the cost of methylphenidate was excluded (F(2,330) = 0.626, ηp2 = 0.004, p = 0.535) or included (F(2,330) = 0.629, ηp2 = 0.004, p = 0.534). Utility improved with methylphenidate treatment as there was a group by time interaction (F(2,330) = 7.525, ηp2 = 0.044, p < 0.001). DISCUSSION: Results from this study indicated that there was no evidence for a difference in resource utilization costs between methylphenidate and placebo treatment. However, utility improved significantly over the 6-month follow-up period. These results can aid in decision-making to improve quality of life in patients with Alzheimer's disease while considering the burden on the healthcare system.

The ß-arrestin-biased ß-adrenergic receptor blocker carvedilol enhances skeletal muscle contractility.

A decrease in skeletal muscle strength and functional exercise capacity due to aging, frailty, and muscle wasting poses major unmet clinical needs. These conditions are associated with numerous adverse clinical outcomes including falls, fractures, and increased hospitalization. Clenbuterol, a ß2-adrenergic receptor (ß2AR) agonist enhances skeletal muscle strength and hypertrophy; however, its clinical utility is limited by side effects such as cardiac arrhythmias mediated by G protein signaling. We recently reported that clenbuterol-induced increases in contractility and skeletal muscle hypertrophy were lost in ß-arrestin 1 knockout mice, implying that arrestins, multifunctional adapter and signaling proteins, play a vital role in mediating the skeletal muscle effects of ß2AR agonists. Carvedilol, classically defined as a ßAR antagonist, is widely used for the treatment of chronic systolic heart failure and hypertension, and has been demonstrated to function as a ß-arrestin-biased ligand for the ß2AR, stimulating ß-arrestin-dependent but not G protein-dependent signaling. In this study, we investigated whether treatment with carvedilol could enhance skeletal muscle strength via ß-arrestin-dependent pathways. In a murine model, we demonstrate chronic treatment with carvedilol, but not other ß-blockers, indeed enhances contractile force in skeletal muscle and this is mediated by ß-arrestin 1. Interestingly, carvedilol enhanced skeletal muscle contractility despite a lack of effect on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Our findings suggest a potential unique clinical role of carvedilol to stimulate skeletal muscle contractility while avoiding the adverse effects with ßAR agonists. This distinctive signaling profile could present an innovative approach to treating sarcopenia, frailty, and secondary muscle wasting.

Apathy as a Treatment Target in Alzheimer's Disease: Implications for Clinical Trials.

Apathy is one of the most prevalent, stable and persistent neuropsychiatric symptom across the neurocognitive disorders spectrum. Recent advances in understanding of phenomenology, neurobiology and intervention trials highlight apathy as an important target for clinical intervention. We conducted a comprehensive review and critical evaluation of recent advances to determine the evidence-based suggestions for future trial designs. This review focused on 4 key areas: 1) pre-dementia states; 2) assessment; 3) mechanisms/biomarkers and 4) treatment/intervention efficacy. Considerable progress has been made in understanding apathy as a treatment target and appreciating pharmacological and non-pharmacological apathy treatment interventions. Areas requiring greater investigation include: diagnostic procedures, symptom measurement, understanding the biological mechanisms/biomarkers of apathy, and a well-formed approach to the development of treatment strategies. A better understanding of the subdomains and biological mechanisms of apathy will advance apathy as a treatment target for clinical trials.

Mapping autonomic, mood and cognitive effects of hypothalamic region deep brain stimulation.

Because of its involvement in a wide variety of cardiovascular, metabolic and behavioural functions, the hypothalamus constitutes a potential target for neuromodulation in a number of treatment-refractory conditions. The precise neural substrates and circuitry subserving these responses, however, are poorly characterized to date. We sought to retrospectively explore the acute sequelae of hypothalamic region deep brain stimulation and characterize their neuroanatomical correlates. To this end we studied-at multiple international centres-58 patients (mean age: 68.5 ± 7.9 years, 26 females) suffering from mild Alzheimer's disease who underwent stimulation of the fornix region between 2007 and 2019. We catalogued the diverse spectrum of acutely induced clinical responses during electrical stimulation and interrogated their neural substrates using volume of tissue activated modelling, voxel-wise mapping, and supervised machine learning techniques. In total 627 acute clinical responses to stimulation-including tachycardia, hypertension, flushing, sweating, warmth, coldness, nausea, phosphenes, and fear-were recorded and catalogued across patients using standard descriptive methods. The most common manifestations during hypothalamic region stimulation were tachycardia (30.9%) and warmth (24.6%) followed by flushing (9.1%) and hypertension (6.9%). Voxel-wise mapping identified distinct, locally separable clusters for all sequelae that could be mapped to specific hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic grey and white matter structures. K-nearest neighbour classification further validated the clinico-anatomical correlates emphasizing the functional importance of identified neural substrates with area under the receiving operating characteristic curves between 0.67 and 0.91. Overall, we were able to localize acute effects of hypothalamic region stimulation to distinct tracts and nuclei within the hypothalamus and the wider diencephalon providing clinico-anatomical insights that may help to guide future neuromodulation work.

Delirium detection methodologies: Implications for outcome measurement in clinical trials in postoperative delirium.

OBJECTIVE: Delirium is a common postoperative complication of hip fracture. Various methods exist to detect delirium as a reference standard. The goal of this study was to characterize the properties of the measures obtained in a randomized controlled trial, to document their relationship to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders:Text Revision based diagnosis of postoperative delirium by a consensus panel, and to describe the method in detail to allow replication by others. METHODS: A secondary analysis of the randomized trial STRIDE (A Strategy to Reduce the Incidence of Postoperative Delirium in Elderly Patients) was conducted. Delirium assessments were performed in 200 consecutive hip fracture repair patients ≥65 years old. Assessors underwent extensive training in delirium assessment and the final delirium diagnosis was adjudicated by a consensus panel of three physicians with expertise in delirium assessment. RESULTS: A total of 680 consensus panel delirium diagnoses were completed. There were only 19 (2.8%, 19/678) evaluations where the delirium adjudication by the consensus panel differed from delirium findings by the Confusion Assessment Method (CAM). In 16 (84%, 16/19) of the cases, CAM was negative but the consensus panel diagnosed the patient as having delirium based on all of the available information including the CAM. CONCLUSION: The consensus panel diagnosis was more sensitive compared to CAM alone, however the magnitude of the difference was not large. When assessors are well trained and delirium assessments are closely supervised throughout the study, CAM may be adequate for delirium diagnosis in a clinical trial. Future studies are needed to test this hypothesis.

Dementia care in the age of COVID-19: Community resources for nurses.

ABSTRACT: The COVID-19 pandemic and related measures, such as social distancing, have adversely impacted persons with dementia (PWD) and their caregivers. Nurses must be able to identify the care needs of PWD and their caregivers and intervene with relevant resources.

Effects of Ramelteon on the Prevention of Postoperative Delirium in Older Patients Undergoing Orthopedic Surgery: The RECOVER Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVES: Postoperative delirium, associated with negative consequences including longer hospital stays and worse cognitive and physical outcomes, is frequently accompanied by sleep-wake disturbance. Our objective was to evaluate the efficacy and short-term safety of ramelteon, a melatonin receptor agonist, for the prevention of postoperative delirium in older patients undergoing orthopedic surgery. DESIGN: A quadruple-masked randomized placebo-controlled trial (Clinical Trials.gov NCT02324153) conducted from March 2017 to June 2019. SETTING: Tertiary academic medical center. PARTICIPANTS: Patients aged 65 years or older, undergoing elective primary or revision hip or knee replacement. INTERVENTION: Ramelteon (8 mg) or placebo MEASUREMENTS: Eighty participants were randomized to an oral gel cap of ramelteon or placebo for 3 consecutive nights starting the night before surgery. Trained research staff conducted delirium assessments for 3 consecutive days starting on postoperative day (POD) 0, after recovery from anesthesia, and on to POD2. A delirium diagnosis was based upon DSM-5 criteria determined by expert panel consensus. RESULTS: Of 80 participants, five withdrew consent (one placebo, four ramelteon) and four were excluded (four ramelteon) after randomization. Delirium incidence during the 2 days following surgery was 7% (5 of 71) with no difference between the ramelteon versus placebo: 9% (3 of 33) and 5% (2 of 38), respectively. The adjusted odds ratio for postoperative delirium as a function of assignment to the ramelteon treatment arm was 1.28 (95% confidence interval: 0.21-7.93; z-value 0.27; p-value = 0.79). Adverse events were similar between the two groups. CONCLUSION: In older patients undergoing elective primary or revision hip or knee replacement, ramelteon was not efficacious in preventing postoperative delirium.

Cannabinoids for Agitation in Alzheimer's Disease.

Agitation is a common neuropsychiatric symptom of Alzheimer's disease (AD) that greatly impacts quality of life and amplifies caregiver burden. Agitation in AD may be associated with volume loss in the anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, insula, amygdala, and frontal cortex, as well as with degeneration of monoaminergic neurotransmission, disrupted circadian rhythms, and frailty. Current pharmacologic options have troubling safety concerns and only modest efficacy. There is increasing interest in cannabinoids as promising agents due to preclinical and early clinical research that suggest cannabinoids can elicit anxiolytic, antidepressant, and/or anti-inflammatory effects. Cannabinoids may relieve agitation by regulating neurotransmitters, improving comorbidities and circadian rhythms, and increasing cerebral circulation. Here we discuss the possible contributory mechanisms for agitation in AD and the therapeutic relevance of cannabinoids, including CBD and THC.

Measuring Apathy in Alzheimer's Disease in the Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial 2 (ADMET 2): A Comparison of Instruments.

BACKGROUND: Diagnostic criteria for apathy have been published but have yet to be evaluated in the context of clinical trials. The Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial 2 (ADMET 2) operationalized the diagnostic criteria for apathy (DCA) into a clinician-rated questionnaire informed by interviews with the patient and caregiver. OBJECTIVE: The goal of the present study was to compare the classification of apathy using the DCA with that using the Neuropsychiatric Inventory-apathy (NPI-apathy) subscale in ADMET 2. Comparisons between NPI-Apathy and Dementia Apathy Interview Rating (DAIR) scale, and DCA and DAIR were also explored. METHODS: ADMET 2 is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase III trial examining the effects of 20 mg/day methylphenidate on symptoms of apathy over 6 months in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease (AD). Participants scoring at least 4 on the NPI-Apathy were recruited. This analysis focuses on cross-sectional correlations between baseline apathy scale scores using cross-tabulation. RESULTS: Of 180 participants, the median age was 76.5 years and they were predominantly white (92.8%) and male (66.1%). The mean (±standard deviation) scores were 7.7 ± 2.4 on the NPI-apathy, and 1.9 ± 0.5 on the DAIR. Of those with NPI-defined apathy, 169 (93.9%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 89.3%-96.9%) met DCA diagnostic criteria. The DCA and DAIR overlapped on apathy diagnosis for 169 participants (93.9%, 95% CI 89.3%-96.9%). CONCLUSION: The measurements used for the assessment of apathy in patients with AD had a high degree of overlap with the DCA. The NPI-apathy cut-off used to determine apathy in ADMET 2 selects those likely to meet DCA criteria.

Neurobiologic Rationale for Treatment of Apathy in Alzheimer's Disease With Methylphenidate.

The public health burden of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is related not only to cognitive symptoms, but also to neuropsychiatric symptoms, including apathy. Apathy is defined as a quantitative reduction of goal-directed activity in comparison to a previous level of functioning and affects 30%-70% of persons with AD. Previous attempts to treat apathy in AD-both nonpharmacologically and pharmacologically-have been wanting. Catecholaminergic treatment with methylphenidate has shown encouraging results in initial trials of apathy in AD. Understanding the neuronal circuits underlying motivated behavior and their reliance on catecholamine actions helps provide a rationale for methylphenidate actions in the treatment of apathy in patients with AD. Anatomical, physiological, and behavioral studies have identified parallel, cortical-basal ganglia circuits that govern action, cognition, and emotion and play key roles in motivated behavior. Understanding the distinct contributions to motivated behavior of subregions of the prefrontal cortex-dorsolateral, orbital-ventromedial, and dorsomedial-helps to explain why degeneration of these areas in AD results in apathetic behaviors. We propose that the degeneration of the prefrontal cortex in AD produces symptoms of apathy. We further propose that methylphenidate treatment may ameliorate those symptoms by boosting norepinephrine and dopamine actions in prefrontal-striatal-thalamocortical circuits.

Association of Depressive Symptoms With Postoperative Delirium and CSF Biomarkers for Alzheimer's Disease Among Hip Fracture Patients.

OBJECTIVES: While there is growing evidence of an association between depressive symptoms and postoperative delirium, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms remain unknown. The goal of this study was to explore the association between depression and postoperative delirium in hip fracture patients, and to examine Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology as a potential underlying mechanism linking depressive symptoms and delirium. METHODS: Patients 65 years old or older (N = 199) who were undergoing hip fracture repair and enrolled in the study "A Strategy to Reduce the Incidence of Postoperative Delirium in Elderly Patients" completed the 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15) preoperatively. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was obtained during spinal anesthesia and assayed for amyloid-beta (Aß) 40, 42, total tau (t-tau), and phosphorylated tau (p-tau)181. RESULTS: For every one point increase in GDS-15, there was a 13% increase in odds of postoperative delirium, adjusted for baseline cognition (MMSE), age, sex, race, education and CSF AD biomarkers (OR = 1.13, 95%CI = 1.02-1.25). Both CSF Aß42/t-tau (ß = -1.52, 95%CI = -2.1 to -0.05) and Aß42/p-tau181 (ß = -0.29, 95%CI = -0.48 to -0.09) were inversely associated with higher GDS-15 scores, where lower ratios indicate greater AD pathology. In an analysis to identify the strongest predictors of delirium out of 18 variables, GDS-15 had the highest classification accuracy for postoperative delirium and was a stronger predictor of delirium than both cognition and AD biomarkers. CONCLUSIONS: In older adults undergoing hip fracture repair, depressive symptoms were associated with underlying AD pathology and postoperative delirium. Mild baseline depressive symptoms were the strongest predictor of postoperative delirium, and may represent a dementia prodrome.