An overview of a multifactor-system theory of personality and individual differences: III. Life span development and the heredity-environment issue.

In Part III of this three-part series on multifactor-system theory, multivariate, life-span development is approached from the standpoint of a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the ontogenesis of factors in each of the six systems. The pattern of quantitative development (described via the Gompertz equation and three developmental parameters) involves growth, stability, and decline, and qualitative development involves changes in the organization of factors (e.g., factor differentiation and convergence). Hereditary and environmental sources of variation are analyzed via the factor gene model and the concept of heredity-dominant factors, and the factor-learning model and environment-dominant factors. It is hypothesized that the sensory and motor systems are heredity dominant, that the style and value systems are environment dominant, and that the cognitive and affective systems are partially heredity dominant.

A multi-systems theory of the structure and dynamics of motor functions.

A theoretical analysis of the structure and dynamics of human motor functioning is presented from the perspective of a general theory of individuality. Within multifactor-systems theory, the structural units of the six systems of integrative personality (i.e., sensory, motor, cognitive, affect, style, and value) are hierarchical factor structures. Integrative functioning, both within and among systems, is described via the principles of general systems and information-processing theory. Our theoretical synthesis of the structure and dynamics of human motor functioning involves conceptualizing the hierarchy of motor factors as: (a) the basic dimensions of individual differences in the motor domain, (b) classes of decomposable motor programs that specify the spatio-temporal organization of behavior, and (c) decomposable classes of processing components entailed by motor programs. Some of the implications for understanding the role of affect in motor functioning and some research suggestions were presented.

Optimal Stimulus Parameters In Avoidance Conditioning Of Inbred Strains Of Mice.

Highly inbred mice of fast and slow conditioning strains (N = 228) were trained in avoidance conditioning and 180 were continued to extinction. The principal goal was to determine optimal stimulus conditions for fast learning, small variances, and maximal strain differences. Conclusions are: a) the major effect of change in CS-US and intertrial intervals occurs, respectively, for intervals less than 3 sec. and 60 sec.; b) change in amperage (150-400 pa) or voltage (250-400 v.) caused no significant differences; c) strain differences in extinction occurred after nearly optimal conditioning, and d) strain differences were altered considerably as stimulus conditions became optimal. Optimal levels of parameters are: 3 sec. CS-US interval, 120-sec. intertrial interval, and 400 v. (220 K ohm impedance circuit).

Cognitive Abilities As Expressions Of Three "Ways Of Knowing".

Factor analytic studies suggest that there are six replicable second order cognitive factors. These six factors lend themselves to being interpreted as aspects of Royce's (1964) three "ways of knowing." This view provides a unified explanation of the second and third order factors. We hypothesize that each second order factor represents either the number of cognitive schemata of a particular type that a person possesses or the quality of these schemata, and the types of schemata are linked to "ways of knowing." The division of second order factors into qualitative and quantitative aspects, with the qualitative aspects being more subject to deterioration with age, and the quantitative aspects more trainable and subject to personality influence, provides an avenue for linking cognitive abilities to the other personality traits. The theory also resolves several theoretical problems concerning cognitive abilities, including distinguishing aptitudes from achievements, measuring creativity, and determining the relationship between rote memory and intelligence.

Factors of Mouse Emotionality at the Second Order, Third Order, and Fourth Order.

Data which had previously yielded 15 factors at the first order were reanalyzed to produce six second-order, three third-order and one fourth-order factors. Broad behavioral patterns were discovered which indicate that escape, avoidance, emotionality, and motor reactivity are the primary manifestations of affectivity in a variety of test situations. In spite of difficulties in distinguishing between dimensions at different strata, this investigation constitutes an important contribution to the empirical basis for hierarchical organization of the affective domain.

Acrophobia Factor Scores As A Function Of Pole Height And Habituation.

Thirty C57BL/ALB mice, fifteen male and fifteen female, were tested for "acrophobia" via the pole test. The animals were randomly distributed into three groups of 6, 12, or 24 inch (15.24, 30.48, or 60.96 cm) high poles:. Both factor scores and individual pole measures were analyzed by 2 x 3 x 5 ANOVA, with main effects for sex, pole height, and days of testing. The results provide experimental support for the interpretation of this factor as acrophobia-that is, the greater the pole height, the higher the factor score. The reduction of factor scores over days (habituation) is interpreted as an arousal-based response.

Invariance of Factors of Mouse Emotionality With Changed Experimental Conditions.

Six factors of mouse emotionality (autonomic balance, motor discharge, acrophobia, territoriality, tunneling-1, and tunneling-2) were compared across three separate studies. Each study included 19 measures from five tests of emotionality: open field, straightaway, pole, cell, and hole-in-wall. However, conditions of testing differed significantly in each study. In the first study, the measures taken were part of a large test battery. In the second study, a reduced test battery included only the 19 measures. In the third study, this reduced battery was used again, but subjects were injected with psychoactive drugs prior to testing. In addition to these changes, different genotypes were used across studies. Subjects in the first study were tested as part of a 6 × 6 diallel table. In the second and third studies, two emotionally contrasted strains (SWR and SJL) were tested. Each population was refactored by alpha factoring with varimax, followed by promax rotations. Factors obtained were compared by quantitative means using S-index and r[SUBc] coefficients of factor matching. Although support was obtained for the invariance of all six factors, the results indicate invariance as being strongest for motor discharge and acrophobia and weakest for tunneling-1 and tunneling-2 factors.

A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF BRAIN DAMAGE TESTS ADMINISTERED TO NORMAL SUBJECTS WITH FACTOR SCORE COMPARISONS ACROSS AGES.

This study investigated the factorial composition of brain damage tests selected on the basis of a comprehensive review of the test literature. The tests were administered to 100 normal persons between the ages of 16 and 70. Two analyses were performed. The first analysis concerned the determi- nation of the factorial composition of the brain damage tests selected. The results suggested that although the dimensionality of the brain damage test battery is relatively complex, the majority of the tests discriminate on the basis of a few dimensions, at least for normal persons. The second analysis involved the determination of factor scores for each individual on the twelve factors extracted in the 16-70 age group analysis. An analysis of the factor scores as a function of age indicated a significant difference for only two of the factors. This finding was discussed in terms of the possibility that certain of the tests would be psychometrically more efficient in differential diagnosis of brain damage in the older person.

Effects of septal lesions on factors of mouse emotionality.

Sixty mice from two emotionally divergent inbred strains, BALB/Alb and C57BL/10Alb, were assigned to one of three experimental groups: septal surgery, control surgery, and intact. Subsequently, all animals were administered a battery of five tasks that yielded 19 measures of emotionality. Factor scores were computed on six invariant factors obtained previously from these measures. Each factor was analyzed by an analysis of variance design with main effects for strain, sex, lesion, and days of testing. Strain and lesion main effects were found on Motor Discharge and Autonomic Balance, Strain X Lesion interaction effects on Motor Discharge and Tunneling 1, and a Lesion X Sex interaction effect on Territorial Marking. The results support the interpretation that the septum affects distinct processes modulating Autonomic Balance and Motor Discharge factors.

Factor Analytic Studies Of Human Brain Damage: I. First And Second-Order Factors And Their Brain Correlates.

This report is concerned with identifying the first and second-order cognitive factors underlying a battery of 49 measures taken from 22 brain damage tests. The test scores from 176 brain damaged patients between 16 and 65 years of age were intercorrelated and subjected to first-order alpha factoring followed by promax rotation to oblique simple structure. Ten of the 13 first-order factors extracted were interpretable, six of them being perceptual in nature and four being of a more conceptual nature. The perceptual factors include: perceptual organization, perceptual-motor speed, pattern recognition, temporal resolution, spatial orientation, and figure-ground identification. The conceptual factors include verbal comprehension, memory, and two abstraction factors. A second-order alpha factoring was performed on the matrix of correlations among the 13 primaries. Three of the five second-order factors extracted were interpretable. They were identified as perceptual integration (subsuming the first-order factors of perceptual organization, perceptual-motor speed, and temporal resolution), verbal memory (subsuming verbal comprehension and memory), and visualization (subsuming spatial orientation and figure-ground identification). Although factor interpretations were based primarily on the patterns of high loading variables, they were also influenced by lesion effects observed in this and related studies. About half the interpretable factors are relatively localized (i.e., confined to one or two lobes of one hemisphere), with the other half more diffuse (i.e., multi-lobed, combined with laterality or bilaterality). The more localized factors include the right hemisphere factors of perceptual-motor speed, temporal resolution, and spatial orientation, and the left hemisphere factors of verbal comprehension, memory, and verbal memory. The more neurally diffuse factors include the second-order factors and such broad gauged first-order factors as abstraction I and II, and pattern recognition. Furthermore, same lobe, bilaterally hemispheric effects were rare, and only four factors (memory, verbal memory, visualization, and abstraction I) were correlated with sub-cortical lesions.

A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF SOME MEASURES OF COGNITIVE STYLE.

Twenty-six test variables for psychological differentiation and cognitive abilities were factor analyzed with a View towards replication of certain factors of perceptual and conceptual differentiation and relating these factors the cognitive abilities. Eight factors were recovered and interpreted, including Form and Element Articulation, Flexibility of Closure, Speed of Closure, Perceptual Speed, and Conceptual Differentiation in Categorbation. Form Articulation appeared to be more related to Flexibility and Speed of Closure, while Element Articulation was more related to Conceptual Differentiation in Categorization. These findings are briefly discussed. .

FACTORS OF EMOTIONALITY RELATED TO ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN LABORATORY MICE.

Fifty mice from four genotypes were tested on a factor analyzed battery of measures of emotionality. This was followed by testing of alcohol consumption. The factors were related to alcohol consumption by a stepwise regression procedure. Among the five best predictors, Factor B, interpreted as a disorganization factor and Factor C, interpreted as an audiogenic reactivity factor, were most consistently related to alcohol consumption.

FACTOR ANALYSIS OF EMOTIONALITY IN TEN INBRED STRAINS OF MICE.

One hundred and nineteen mice of 10 inbred strains were run on 32 measures from 16 tests in order to obtain a large variance coverage of behavioral differences for the purpose of obtaining factors among emotionality measures and strain factor scores.

Behavior genetic analysis of mouse emotionality. III. The diallel analysis.

A total of 775 pure-strain and F1 mice were obtained from a 6 X 6 diallel mating plan. Previous factor analysis of 42 measures of emotionality identified 14 behavioral factors, ten of which were interpretable. Hayman's analysis of variance and analysis of diallel crosses were applied to each of the factors. In general, the findings indicate that the mode of inheritance for emotionality factors is polygenic and in the direction of complete dominance. However, a major point of this investigation is that the mode of inheritance of highly complex behavior such as emotionality depends on the factor in question. For example, the breakdown of dominance effects by factor was as follows: partial dominance--Motor Discharge, Food Motivation, Tunneling-2, and Activity Level (males); complete dominance--Audiogenic Reactivity, Underwater Swimming (males), and Activity Level (females); overdominance--Acrophobia, Territorial Marking (males). Additional findings include directional dominance for Underwater Swimming and Audiogenic Reactivity, and significant sex differences for eight of the 14 factors.