Using Optic Nerve Sheath Diameter for Intracranial Pressure (ICP) Monitoring in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Scoping Review.

INTRODUCTION: Neuromonitoring represents a cornerstone in the comprehensive management of patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI), allowing for early detection of complications such as increased intracranial pressure (ICP) [1]. This has led to a search for noninvasive modalities that are reliable and deployable at bedside. Among these, ultrasonographic optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) measurement is a strong contender, estimating ICP by quantifying the distension of the optic nerve at higher ICP values. Thus, this scoping review seeks to describe the existing evidence for the use of ONSD in estimating ICP in adult TBI patients as compared to gold-standard invasive methods. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This review was conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for scoping reviews, with a main search of PubMed and EMBASE. The search was limited to studies of adult patients with TBI published in any language between 2012 and 2022. Sixteen studies were included for analysis, with all studies conducted in high-income countries. RESULTS: All of the studies reviewed measured ONSD using the same probe frequency. In most studies, the marker position for ONSD measurement was initially 3 mm behind the globe, retina, or papilla. A few studies utilized additional parameters such as the ONSD/ETD (eyeball transverse diameter) ratio or ODE (optic disc elevation), which also exhibit high sensitivity and reliability. CONCLUSION: Overall, ONSD exhibits great test accuracy and has a strong, almost linear correlation with invasive methods. Thus, ONSD should be considered one of the most effective noninvasive techniques for ICP estimation in TBI patients.

Quantitative Pupillometry for Intracranial Pressure (ICP) Monitoring in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Scoping Review.

The neurological examination has remained key for the detection of worsening in neurocritical care patients, particularly after traumatic brain injury (TBI). New-onset, unreactive anisocoria frequently occurs in such situations, triggering aggressive diagnostic and therapeutic measures to address life-threatening elevations in intracranial pressure (ICP). As such, the field needs objective, unbiased, portable, and reliable methods for quickly assessing such pupillary changes. In this area, quantitative pupillometry (QP) proves promising, leveraging the analysis of different pupillary variables to indirectly estimate ICP. Thus, this scoping review seeks to describe the existing evidence for the use of QP in estimating ICP in adult patients with TBI as compared with invasive methods, which are considered the standard practice. This review was conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for scoping reviews, with a main search of PubMed and EMBASE. The search was limited to studies of adult patients with TBI published in any language between 2012 and 2022. Eight studies were included for analysis, with the vast majority being prospective studies conducted in high-income countries. Among QP variables, serial rather than isolated measurements of neurologic pupillary index, constriction velocity, and maximal constriction velocity demonstrated the best correlation with invasive ICP measurement values, particularly in predicting refractory intracranial hypertension. Neurologic pupillary index and ICP also showed an inverse relationship when trends were simultaneously compared. As such, QP, when used repetitively, seems to be a promising tool for noninvasive ICP monitoring in patients with TBI, especially when used in conjunction with other clinical and neuromonitoring data.

Scalp wound management: a narrative review from a neurosurgical perspective.

OBJECTIVE: This article aims to present a narrative review of current literature about the anatomical characteristics of the scalp as well as current practices in the management of surgical, traumatic and pressure injuries in the scalp, which are common in neurosurgery practice. METHOD: We searched PubMed for publications and book chapters in English from 2011 to 2021. We also included commonly referenced papers that we considered relevant to the subject with publication before these dates. We used the search terms 'laceration,' and/or 'neurosurgery' and/or, 'pressure injury,' and/or 'craniotomy,' and/or 'surgical incision' in combination with 'scalp,' and/or 'wound care.' We also searched the reference lists of publications identified by the search strategy and selected those that we judged relevant. RESULTS: We pre-selected 52 articles that covered various aspects of anatomy, pathophysiology, scalp wound management, or general wound care that we considered applied to the anatomical region of our interest. After abstract review, we selected 34 articles that met our search criteria and were included in our review. CONCLUSION: There is limited evidence regarding classification and care of scalp wounds. As a result, many of the current practices for scalp wound management are based on evidence derived from studies involving different anatomical regions, not considering its particular anatomy, vasculature and microbiome. Further research is needed for more comprehensive and effective protocols for the management of scalp injuries. However, this present review proposes responses to the identified gaps concerning the management of scalp wounds.

The intracranial compartmental syndrome: a proposed model for acute brain injury monitoring and management.

For decades, one of the main targets in the management of severe acute brain injury (ABI) has been intracranial hypertension (IH) control. However, the determination of IH has suffered variations in its thresholds over time without clear evidence for it. Meanwhile, progress in the understanding of intracranial content (brain, blood and cerebrospinal fluid) dynamics and recent development in monitoring techniques suggest that targeting intracranial compliance (ICC) could be a more reliable approach rather than guiding actions by predetermined intracranial pressure values. It is known that ICC impairment forecasts IH, as intracranial volume may rapidly increase inside the skull, a closed bony box with derisory expansibility. Therefore, an intracranial compartmental syndrome (ICCS) can occur with deleterious brain effects, precipitating a reduction in brain perfusion, thereby inducing brain ischemia. The present perspective review aims to discuss the ICCS concept and suggest an integrative model for the combination of modern invasive and noninvasive techniques for IH and ICC assessment. The theory and logic suggest that the combination of multiple ancillary methods may enhance ICC impairment prediction, pointing proactive actions and improving patient outcomes.

Hyperosmolar therapies for neurological deterioration in mild and moderate traumatic brain injury: A scoping review.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the available evidence on hyperosmolar therapies(HT) in mild and moderate traumatic brain injury(TBI) and to evaluate the effects on outcomes.A scoping review was conducted according to the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology. Inclusion criteria: (a)randomized controlled trials(RCTs), prospective and retrospective cohort studies and case-control studies; (b)all-ages mild and moderate TBIs; (c)HT administration; (d)functional outcomes recorded; (e)comparator group. RESULTS: From 4424 records, only 3 respected the inclusion criteria. In a retrospective cohort study of adult moderate TBIs, the Glasgow Coma Scale(GCS) remained the same at 48 hours in those treated with hypertonic saline(HTS) while it worsened in the non-treated. A trend toward increased pulmonary infections and length of stay was found. In an RCT of adult severe and moderate TBIs, moderate TBIs treated with HTS showed a trend toward better secondary outcomes than standard care alone, with similar odds of adverse effects. An RCT enrolling children with mild TBI found a significant improvement in concussive pain immediately after HTS administration and after 2-3 days. No adverse events occurred. CONCLUSIONS: A gap in the literature about HTs' role in mild and moderate TBI was found. Some benefits may exist with limited side effects and further studies are desirable.

Intracranial pressure management: moving beyond guidelines.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The aim of this study was to provide an overview on advances in intracranial pressure (ICP) protocols for care, moving from traditional to more recent concepts. RECENT FINDINGS: Deep understanding of mechanics and dynamics of fluids and solids have been introduced for intracranial physiology. The amplitude or the harmonics of the cerebral-spinal fluid and the cerebral blood waves shows more information about ICP than just a numeric threshold. When the ICP overcome the compensatory mechanisms that maintain the compliance within the skull, an intracranial compartment syndrome (ICCS) is defined. Autoregulation monitoring emerge as critical tool to recognize CPP management. Measurement of brain tissue oxygen will be a critical intervention for diagnosing an ICCS. Surgical procedures focused on increasing the physiological compliance and increasing the volume of the compartments of the skull. SUMMARY: ICP management is a complex task, moving far than numeric thresholds for activation of interventions. The interactions of intracranial elements requires new interpretations moving beyond classical theories. Most of the traditional clinical studies supporting ICP management are not generating high class evidence. Recommendations for ICP management requires better designed clinical studies using new concepts to generate interventions according to the new era of personalized medicine.

Epidemiological Review of Spinal Cord Injury due to Road Traffic Accidents in Latin America.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a disease that affects the normal function of the spinal cord. Road traffic accidents (RTAs) represent the main cause of SCI worldwide. SCI may generate physical disability and economic dependency, which is especially significant in low- and middle-income countries such as most of the Latin American countries. The main objective of this study was to present an epidemiological review of SCI secondary to RTAs. Stronger evidence on this condition in Latin America is important for future-specific data collection and prevention strategies. A literature review was carried out using specific search strategies in databases of indexed journals from the period 2000 to 2019. Data on SCI secondary to RTAs in the Latin American region were collected and analyzed. After initial screening and removal of duplicates, 16 articles met the inclusion criteria and were chosen for analysis. Data from 7 Latin American countries were retrievable. On average, RTAs were responsible for 40.81% of SCI. Data from different studies are heterogeneous. Car accidents and moto accidents were equally responsible for SCIs (50.61% vs. 49.06%). The thoracic segments were the most commonly affected (57.87%). Males in their 30s were the most affected category (76.6%). SCI due to RTAs may represent a severe but preventable condition that affects mostly men in their productive age, generating important social and economic issues. Data about this condition in Latin America are scarce, and could limit prevention and treatment strategies. Prospective data collection about this condition is recommended.

Global neurotrauma research challenges and opportunities.

Traumatic injury to the brain or spinal cord is one of the most serious public health problems worldwide. The devastating impact of 'trauma', a term used to define the global burden of disease related to all injuries, is the leading cause of loss of human potential across the globe, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Enormous challenges must be met to significantly advance neurotrauma research around the world, specifically in underserved and austere environments. Neurotrauma research at the global level needs to be contextualized: different regions have their own needs and obstacles. Interventions that are not considered a priority in some regions could be a priority for others. The introduction of inexpensive and innovative interventions, including mobile technologies and e-health applications, focused on policy management improvement are essential and should be applicable to the needs of the local environment. The simple transfer of a clinical question from resource-rich environments to those of low- and middle-income countries that lack sophisticated interventions may not be the best strategy to address these countries' needs. Emphasis on promoting the design of true 'ecological' studies that include the evaluation of human factors in relation to the process of care, analytical descriptions of health systems, and how leadership is best applied in medical communities and society as a whole will become crucial.

Decompressive craniotomy: an international survey of practice.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke have devastating consequences and are major global public health issues. For patients that require a cerebral decompression after suffering a TBI or stroke, a decompressive craniectomy (DC) is the most commonly performed operation. However, retrospective non-randomized studies suggest that a decompressive craniotomy (DCO; also known as hinge or floating craniotomy), where a bone flap is replaced but not rigidly fixed, has comparable outcomes to DC. The primary aim of this project was to understand the current extent of usage of DC and DCO for TBI and stroke worldwide. METHOD: A questionnaire was designed and disseminated globally via emailing lists and social media to practicing neurosurgeons between June and November 2019. RESULTS: We received 208 responses from 60 countries [40 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)]. DC is used more frequently than DCO, however, about one-quarter of respondents are using a DCO in more than 25% of their patients. The three top indications for a DCO were an acute subdural hematoma (ASDH) and a GCS of 9-12, ASDH with contusions and a GCS of 3-8, and ASDH with contusions and a GCS of 9-12. There were 8 DCO techniques used with the majority (60/125) loosely tying sutures to the bone flap. The majority (82%) stated that they were interested in collaborating on a randomized trial of DCO vs. DC. CONCLUSION: Our results show that DCO is a procedure carried out for TBI and stroke, especially in LMICs, and most commonly for an ASDH. The majority of the respondents were interested in collaborating on a is a future randomized trial.

Management of severe traumatic brain injury in regions with limited resources.

IMPORTANCE: Severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) is a critical health problem in regions of limited resources (RLRs). Younger populations are among the most impacted. The objective of this review is to analyze recent consensus-based algorithms, protocols and guidelines proposed for the care of patients with TBI in RLRs. OBSERVATIONS: The principal mechanisms for sTBI in RLRs are road traffic injuries (RTIs) and violence. Limitations of care include suboptimal or non-existent pre-hospital care, overburdened emergency services, lack of trained human resources, and surgical and intensive care. Low-cost neuromonitoring systems are currently in testing, and formal neurotrauma registries are forming to evaluate both long-term outcomes and best practices at every level of care from hospital transport to the emergency department (ED), to the operating room and intensive care unit (ICU). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The burden of sTBI is highest in RLRs. As working-age adults are the predominantly affected age-group, an increase in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) generates a loss of economic growth in regions where economic growth is needed most. Four multi-institutional collaborations between high-income countries (HICs) and LMICs have developed evidence and consensus-based documents focused on capacity building for sTBI care as a means of addressing this substantial burden of disease.

Hinge/floating craniotomy as an alternative technique for cerebral decompression: a scoping review.

Hinge craniotomy (HC) is a technique that allows for a degree of decompression whilst retaining the bone flap in situ, in a 'floating' or 'hinged' fashion. This provides expansion potential for ensuing cerebral oedema whilst obviating the need for cranioplasty in the future. The exact indications, technique and outcomes of this procedure have yet to be determined, but it is likely that HC provides an alternative technique to decompressive craniectomy (DC) in certain contexts. The primary objective was to collate and describe the current evidence base for HC, including perioperative parameters, functional outcomes and complications. The secondary objective was to identify current nomenclature, operative technique and operative decision-making. A scoping review was performed in accordance with the PRISMA-ScR Checklist. Fifteen studies totalling 283 patients (mean age 45.1 and M:F 199:46) were included. There were 12 different terms for HC. The survival rate of the cohort was 74.6% (n = 211). Nine patients (3.2%) required subsequent formal DC. Six studies compared HC to DC following traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke, finding at least equivalent control of intracranial pressure (ICP). These studies also reported reduced rates of complications, including infection, in HC compared to DC. We have described the current evidence base of HC. There is no evidence of substantially worse outcomes compared to DC, although no randomised trials were identified. Eventually, a randomised trial will be useful to determine if HC should be offered as first-line treatment when indicated.

Development and assessment of competency-based neurotrauma course curriculum for international neurosurgery residents and neurosurgeons.

OBJECTIVE: Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are a significant disease burden worldwide. It is imperative to improve neurosurgeons' training during and after their medical residency with appropriate neurotrauma competencies. Unfortunately, the development of these competencies during neurosurgeons' careers and in daily practice is very heterogeneous. This article aimed to describe the development and evaluation of a competency-based international course curriculum designed to address a broad spectrum of needs for taking care of patients with neurotrauma with basic and advanced interventions in different scenarios around the world. METHODS: A committee of 5 academic neurosurgeons was involved in the task of building this course curriculum. The process started with the identification of the problems to be addressed and the subsequent performance needed. After this, competencies were defined. In the final phase, educational activities were designed to achieve the intended learning outcomes. In the end, the entire process resulted in competency and outcomes-based education strategy, including a definition of all learning activities and learning outcomes (curriculum), that can be integrated with a faculty development process, including training. Further development was completed by 4 additional academic neurosurgeons supported by a curriculum developer specialist and a project manager. After the development of the course curriculum, template programs were developed with core and optional content defined for implementation and evaluation. RESULTS: The content of the course curriculum is divided into essentials and advanced concepts and interventions in neurotrauma care. A mixed sample of 1583 neurosurgeons and neurosurgery residents attending 36 continuing medical education activities in 30 different cities around the world evaluated the course. The average satisfaction was 97%. The average usefulness score was 4.2, according to the Likert scale. CONCLUSIONS: An international competency-based course curriculum is an option for creating a well-accepted neurotrauma educational process designed to address a broad spectrum of needs that a neurotrauma practitioner faces during the basic and advanced care of patients in different regions of the world. This process may also be applied to other areas of the neurosurgical knowledge spectrum. Moreover, this process allows worldwide standardization of knowledge requirements and competencies, such that training may be better benchmarked between countries regardless of their income level.

Impact of Cervical Collars on Intracranial Pressure Values in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies.

BACKGROUND: Spinal cord injury (SCI) is present in around 2-4% of trauma victims. More than half of this injuries are located at the cervical region. Twenty percent of victims with cervical spinal trauma and 5% of patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) will have an SCI. Cervical immobilization with rigid or semirigid collars is routinely used as prophylactic or definitive treatment intervention in general trauma care. An important adverse effect of cervical collars application is the increase in intracranial pressure (ICP) values. This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to estimate the overall magnitude of ICP changes after cervical collar application. METHODS: Major electronic databases (Ovid/Medline, Embase and Cochrane Library) were systematically searched for prospective studies that assessed ICP changes after cervical collar applications. Study level characteristics and ICP values before, during and after cervical collar application, were extracted. The meta-analysis was performed using random-effects model. RESULTS: Five studies comprising 86 patients were included in the systematic review and the quantitative synthesis. The overall increase in ICP after collar application was statistically significant (weighted mean difference [WMD] = 4.43; 95%CI 1.70, 7.17; P < 0.01), meaning an overall ICP increase of approximately 4.4 mmHg. The decrease in ICP values after collar removal reached statistical significance (WMD = - 2.99; 95%CI - 5.45, - 0.52; P = 0.02), meaning an overall ICP decrease of approximately 3 mmHg after collar removal. ICP values before and after cervical collar application were not statistically significant (WMD = 0.49; 95%CI - 1.61, 2.59; P = 0.65), meaning no ICP change. CONCLUSIONS: Heterogeneous studies of application of cervical collars as a partial motion restriction strategy after injuries have demonstrated increases in ICP in TBI patients. Increases in ICP can induce complications in TBI patients. Appropriate selection criteria for cervical motion restriction in TBI patients need to be considered.

Harnessing inter-disciplinary collaboration to improve emergency care in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs): results of research prioritisation setting exercise.

BACKGROUND: More than half of deaths in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) result from conditions that could be treated with emergency care - an integral component of universal health coverage (UHC) - through timely access to lifesaving interventions. METHODS: The World Health Organization (WHO) aims to extend UHC to a further 1 billion people by 2023, yet evidence supporting improved emergency care coverage is lacking. In this article, we explore four phases of a research prioritisation setting (RPS) exercise conducted by researchers and stakeholders from South Africa, Egypt, Nepal, Jamaica, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Colombia, Ethiopia, Iran, Jordan, Malaysia, South Korea and Phillipines, USA and UK as a key step in gathering evidence required by policy makers and practitioners for the strengthening of emergency care systems in limited-resource settings. RESULTS: The RPS proposed seven priority research questions addressing: identification of context-relevant emergency care indicators, barriers to effective emergency care; accuracy and impact of triage tools; potential quality improvement via registries; characteristics of people seeking emergency care; best practices for staff training and retention; and cost effectiveness of critical care - all within LMICs. CONCLUSIONS: Convened by WHO and facilitated by the University of Sheffield, the Global Emergency Care Research Network project (GEM-CARN) brought together a coalition of 16 countries to identify research priorities for strengthening emergency care in LMICs. Our article further assesses the quality of the RPS exercise and reviews the current evidence supporting the identified priorities.

Consensus statement from the International Consensus Meeting on the Role of Decompressive Craniectomy in the Management of Traumatic Brain Injury : Consensus statement.

BACKGROUND: Two randomised trials assessing the effectiveness of decompressive craniectomy (DC) following traumatic brain injury (TBI) were published in recent years: DECRA in 2011 and RESCUEicp in 2016. As the results have generated debate amongst clinicians and researchers working in the field of TBI worldwide, it was felt necessary to provide general guidance on the use of DC following TBI and identify areas of ongoing uncertainty via a consensus-based approach. METHODS: The International Consensus Meeting on the Role of Decompressive Craniectomy in the Management of Traumatic Brain Injury took place in Cambridge, UK, on the 28th and 29th September 2017. The meeting was jointly organised by the World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies (WFNS), AO/Global Neuro and the NIHR Global Health Research Group on Neurotrauma. Discussions and voting were organised around six pre-specified themes: (1) primary DC for mass lesions, (2) secondary DC for intracranial hypertension, (3) peri-operative care, (4) surgical technique, (5) cranial reconstruction and (6) DC in low- and middle-income countries. RESULTS: The invited participants discussed existing published evidence and proposed consensus statements. Statements required an agreement threshold of more than 70% by blinded voting for approval. CONCLUSIONS: In this manuscript, we present the final consensus-based recommendations. We have also identified areas of uncertainty, where further research is required, including the role of primary DC, the role of hinge craniotomy and the optimal timing and material for skull reconstruction.

Pattern of reporting and practices for the management of traumatic brain injury: An overview of published literature from India.

BACKGROUND: Published literature regarding the demographics and mechanism of injury for traumatic brain injury (TBI) in India has not been analyzed in an organized sample. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this systematic review was to organize the published literature from India related to TBI and analyze it in a very specific sample to identify the specific patterns of injury and associated mortality. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A search strategy with specific inclusion criteria was performed in PubMed, Cochrane, Web of Science, and the World Health Organisation (WHO) Global Health Library. The process included an additional search within the indexed literature and the website-based population survey reports. RESULTS: Our review identified 72 studies from 300 potentially relevant articles based on the broad criteria that defined the demographics of the patients suffering from TBI and the details of trauma sustained, including the mechanism of injury as well as its diagnosis, management, and outcome. Changes in demographic patterns, the patterns of the body regions involved, the associated injuries, the clinical presentation, the follow-up status of patients suffering from TBI, who may or may not have shown clinical improvement, the overall outcome, as well as the mortality and disability status reported in the literature were analyzed. A high incidence of TBI in the productive population is of serious concern. Extremes of ages are more vulnerable to severe injury and a poor outcome. CONCLUSION: Quantitative analysis of injuries and outcomes of TBI victims shows a bigger health impact in the economically active population and in patients in the extremes of age groups.

Implementation of the World Health Organization Trauma Care Checklist Program in 11 Centers Across Multiple Economic Strata: Effect on Care Process Measures.

BACKGROUND: Trauma contributes more than ten percent of the global burden of disease. Initial assessment and resuscitation of trauma patients often requires rapid diagnosis and management of multiple concurrent complex conditions, and errors are common. We investigated whether implementing a trauma care checklist would improve care for injured patients in low-, middle-, and high-income countries. METHODS: From 2010 to 2012, the impact of the World Health Organization (WHO) Trauma Care Checklist program was assessed in 11 hospitals using a stepped wedge pre- and post-intervention comparison with randomly assigned intervention start dates. Study sites represented nine countries with diverse economic and geographic contexts. Primary end points were adherence to process of care measures; secondary data on morbidity and mortality were also collected. Multilevel logistic regression models examined differences in measures pre- versus post-intervention, accounting for patient age, gender, injury severity, and center-specific variability. RESULTS: Data were collected on 1641 patients before and 1781 after program implementation. Patient age (mean 34 ± 18 vs. 34 ± 18), sex (21 vs. 22 % female), and the proportion of patients with injury severity scores (ISS) ≥ 25 (10 vs. 10 %) were similar before and after checklist implementation (p > 0.05). Improvement was found for 18 of 19 process measures, including greater odds of having abdominal examination (OR 3.26), chest auscultation (OR 2.68), and distal pulse examination (OR 2.33) (all p < 0.05). These changes were robust to several sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of the WHO Trauma Care Checklist was associated with substantial improvements in patient care process measures among a cohort of patients in diverse settings.

Elevation of the head during intensive care management in people with severe traumatic brain injury.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major public health problem and a fundamental cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The burden of TBI disproportionately affects low- and middle-income countries. Intracranial hypertension is the most frequent cause of death and disability in brain-injured people. Special interventions in the intensive care unit are required to minimise factors contributing to secondary brain injury after trauma. Therapeutic positioning of the head (different degrees of head-of-bed elevation (HBE)) has been proposed as a low cost and simple way of preventing secondary brain injury in these people. The aim of this review is to evaluate the evidence related to the clinical effects of different backrest positions of the head on important clinical outcomes or, if unavailable, relevant surrogate outcomes. OBJECTIVES: To assess the clinical and physiological effects of HBE during intensive care management in people with severe TBI. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the following electronic databases from their inception up to March 2017: Cochrane Injuries' Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, three other databases and two clinical trials registers. The Cochrane Injuries' Information Specialist ran the searches. SELECTION CRITERIA: We selected all randomised controlled trials (RCTs) involving people with TBI who underwent different HBE or backrest positions. Studies may have had a parallel or cross-over design. We included adults and children over two years of age with severe TBI (Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) less than 9). We excluded studies performed in children of less than two years of age because of their unfused skulls. We included any therapeutic HBE including supine (flat) or different degrees of head elevation with or without knee gatch or reverse Trendelenburg applied during the acute management of the TBI. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently checked all titles and abstracts, excluding references that clearly didn't meet all selection criteria, and extracted data from selected studies on to a data extraction form specifically designed for this review. There were no cases of multiple reporting. Each review author independently evaluated risk of bias through assessing sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding, incomplete outcome data, selective outcome reporting, and other sources of bias. MAIN RESULTS: We included three small studies with a cross-over design, involving a total of 20 participants (11 adults and 9 children), in this review. Our primary outcome was mortality, and there was one death by the time of follow-up 28 days after hospital admission. The trials did not measure the clinical secondary outcomes of quality of life, GCS, and disability. The included studies provided information only for the secondary outcomes intracranial pressure (ICP), cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), and adverse effects.We were unable to pool the results as the data were either presented in different formats or no numerical data were provided. We included narrative interpretations of the available data.The overall risk of bias of the studies was unclear due to poor reporting of the methods. There was marked inconsistency across studies for the outcome of ICP and small sample sizes or wide confidence intervals for all outcomes. We therefore rated the quality of the evidence as very low for all outcomes and have not included the results of individual studies here. We do not have enough evidence to draw conclusions about the effect of HBE during intensive care management of people with TBI. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The lack of consistency among studies, scarcity of data and the absence of evidence to show a correlation between physiological measurements such as ICP, CCP and clinical outcomes, mean that we are uncertain about the effects of HBE during intensive care management in people with severe TBI.Well-designed and larger trials that measure long-term clinical outcomes are needed to understand how and when different backrest positions can affect the management of severe TBI.

Damage control of civilian penetrating brain injuries in environments of low neuro-monitoring resources.

INTRODUCTION: Gunshot wounds to the head are more common in military settings. Recently, a damage control (DC) approach for the management of these lesions has been used in combat areas. The aim of this study was to evaluate the results of civilian patients with penetrating gunshot wounds to the head, managed with a strategy of early cranial decompression (ECD) as a DC procedure in a university hospital with few resources for intensive care unit (ICU) neuro-monitoring in Colombia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifty-four patients were operated according to the DC strategy (<12 h after injury), over a 4-year period. Variables were analysed and results were evaluated according to the Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) at 12 months post injury; a dichotomous variable was established as 'favourable' (GOS 4-5) or 'unfavourable' (GOS 1-3). A univariate analysis was performed using a χ(2) test. RESULTS: Forty (74.1%) of the patients survived and 36 (90%) of them had favourable GOS. Factors associated with adverse outcomes were: Injury Severity Score (ISS) greater than 25, bi-hemispheric involvement, intra-cerebral haematoma on the first CT, closed basal cisterns and non-reactive pupils in the emergency room. CONCLUSION: DC for neurotrauma with ECD is an option to improve survival and favourable neurological outcomes 12 months after injury in patients with penetrating traumatic brain injury treated in a university hospital with few resources for ICU neuro-monitoring.