Identification of drugs including a dopamine receptor antagonist that selectively target cancer stem cells.

Selective targeting of cancer stem cells (CSCs) offers promise for a new generation of therapeutics. However, assays for both human CSCs and normal stem cells that are amenable to robust biological screens are limited. Using a discovery platform that reveals differences between neoplastic and normal human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC), we identify small molecules from libraries of known compounds that induce differentiation to overcome neoplastic self-renewal. Surprisingly, thioridazine, an antipsychotic drug, selectively targets the neoplastic cells, and impairs human somatic CSCs capable of in vivo leukemic disease initiation while having no effect on normal blood SCs. The drug antagonizes dopamine receptors that are expressed on CSCs and on breast cancer cells as well. These results suggest that dopamine receptors may serve as a biomarker for diverse malignancies, demonstrate the utility of using neoplastic hPSCs for identifying CSC-targeting drugs, and provide support for the use of differentiation as a therapeutic strategy.

Inability of human induced pluripotent stem cell-hematopoietic derivatives to downregulate microRNAs in vivo reveals a block in xenograft hematopoietic regeneration.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) can regenerate the entire hematopoietic system in vivo, providing the most relevant criteria to measure candidate HSCs derived from human embryonic stem cell (hESC) or induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) sources. Here we show that, unlike primitive hematopoietic cells derived from hESCs, phenotypically identical cells derived from hiPSC are more permissive to graft the bone marrow of xenotransplantation recipients. Despite establishment of bone marrow graft, hiPSC-derived cells fail to demonstrate hematopoietic differentiation in vivo. However, once removed from recipient bone marrow, hiPSC-derived grafts were capable of in vitro multilineage hematopoietic differentiation, indicating that xenograft imparts a restriction to in vivo hematopoietic progression. This failure to regenerate multilineage hematopoiesis in vivo was attributed to the inability to downregulate key microRNAs involved in hematopoiesis. Based on these analyses, our study indicates that hiPSCs provide a beneficial source of pluripotent stem cell-derived hematopoietic cells for transplantation compared with hESCs. Since use of the human-mouse xenograft models prevents detection of putative hiPSC-derived HSCs, we suggest that new preclinical models should be explored to fully evaluate cells generated from hiPSC sources.

The impact of critical point drying with liquid carbon dioxide on collagen-hydroxyapatite composite scaffolds.

Collagen-hydroxyapatite composites for bone tissue engineering are usually made by freezing an aqueous dispersion of these components and then freeze-drying. This method creates a foamed matrix which may not be optimum for growing cell colonies larger than a few hundred micrometres due to the limited diffusion of nutrients and oxygen, and the limited removal of waste metabolites. Incorporating a network of microchannels in the interior of the scaffold which may permit the flow of nutrient-rich media has been proposed as a method to overcome these diffusion constraints. A novel three-dimensional printing and critical point drying technique previously used to make collagen scaffolds has been modified to create collagen-hydroxyapatite scaffolds. This study investigates the properties of collagen and collagen-hydroxyapatite scaffolds and whether subjecting collagen and hydroxyapatite to critical point drying with liquid carbon dioxide results in any changes to the individual components. Specifically, the hydroxyapatite component was characterized before and after processing using wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy. Critical point drying did not induce elemental, crystallographic or molecular changes in the hydroxyapatite. The quaternary structure of collagen was characterized using transmission electron microscopy and the quarter-staggered array characteristic of native collagen remained after processing. Microstructural characterization of the composites using scanning electron microscopy showed the hydroxyapatite particles were mechanically interlocked in the collagen matrix. The in vitro biological response of MG63 osteogenic cells to the composite scaffolds were characterized using the Alamar Blue, PicoGreen, alkaline phosphate and Live/Dead assays, and revealed that the critical point dried scaffolds were non-cytotoxic.

Interaction of human valve interstitial cells with collagen matrices manufactured using rapid prototyping.

Rapid prototyping is a novel process for the production of scaffolds of predetermined size and three-dimensional shape. The aim of the study was to determine the feasibility of this technology for producing scaffolds for tissue engineering an aortic valve and the optimal concentration of collagen processed in this manner that would maintain viability and promote proliferation of human valve interstitial cells. Scaffolds of 1%, 2% and 5% w/v bovine type-I collagen were manufactured using rapid prototyping. Valve interstitial cells isolated from three human aortic valves were seeded on the scaffolds and cultured for up to 4 weeks. Cell viability was assessed using the CellTiter 96 Aq(ueous) One Solution Cell Proliferation Assay and cell death by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) measurement. Valve interstitial cells remained viable and proliferated within the collagen scaffolds. Cells consistently proliferated to a greater extent on 1% collagen scaffolds rather than either 2% or 5% collagen and after 4 weeks reached 212+/-33.1%, 139+/-25.9% and 129+/-38.3% (mean+/-SD) of their initial seeding density on 1%, 2% and 5% collagen scaffolds, respectively. LDH analysis demonstrated that there was minimal cell death indicating that the collagen scaffold was not toxic to human valve interstitial cells. Rapid prototyping provides a route to optimize biological scaffold designs for tissue engineering cardiac valves. This technology has the versatility to create scaffolds that are compatible with the specific needs of the valve interstitial cells and should enhance cell viability, proliferation and function.

Collagen scaffolds reinforced with biomimetic composite nano-sized carbonate-substituted hydroxyapatite crystals and shaped by rapid prototyping to contain internal microchannels.

The next generation of tissue engineering scaffolds will be made to accommodate blood vessels and nutrient channels to support cell survival deep in the interior of the scaffolds. To this end, we have developed a method that incorporates microchannels to permit the flow of nutrient-rich media through collagen-based scaffolds. The scaffold matrix comprises nano-sized carbonate-substituted hydroxyapatite (HA) crystals internally precipitated in collagen fibers. The scaffold therefore mimics many of the features found in bone. A biomimetic precipitation technique is used whereby a collagen membrane separates reservoirs of calcium and phosphate solutions. The collision of calcium and phosphate ions diffusing from opposite directions results in the precipitation of mineral within the collagen membrane. Transmission electron microscopy analysis showed the dimension of the mineral crystals to be approximately 180 x 80 x 20 nm, indicating that the crystals reside in the intermicrofibril gaps. Electron diffraction indicated that the mineral was in the HA phase, and infrared spectroscopy confirmed type A carbonate substitution. The collagen-HA membrane is then used to make 3-dimensional (3D) scaffolds: the membrane is shredded and mixed in an aqueous-based collagen dispersion and processed using the critical point drying method. Adjusting the pH of the dispersion to 5.0 before mixing the composite component preserved the nano-sized carbonate-substituted HA crystals. Branching and interconnecting microchannels in the interior of the scaffolds are made with a sacrificial mold manufactured by using a 3D wax printer. The 3D wax printer has been modified to print the mold from biocompatible materials. Appropriately sized microchannels within collagen-HA scaffolds brings us closer to fulfilling the mass transport requirements for osteogenic cells living deep within the scaffold.

Potential for synthesis and degradation of extracellular matrix proteins by valve interstitial cells seeded onto collagen scaffolds.

Matrix remodeling, which involves proteolytic enzymes, such as the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), is of significant importance with respect to tissue engineering a heart valve construct. The ability of valve interstitial cells (ICs) to release these enzymes in biological scaffolds and to synthesize their own matrix has not been adequately studied, and this has important implications for tissue engineering. Cultured human aortic valve ICs were seeded onto a 3-dimensional type I collagen matrix for 28 days, whereby the presence of the remodeling enzymes, MMPs, were determined using immunohistochemistry, and detection of extracellular matrix (ECM) gene expression was performed using in situ hybridization. The collagenases, stromelysins, and membrane-type MMPs were expressed in 1%, 2%, and 5% collagen scaffolds after 28 days, whereas gelatinase expression was not observed. In situ hybridization revealed the presence of the ECM messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) in cells cultured in collagen scaffolds however, an increase in all three mRNAs was only detected in the 1% collagen scaffolds. The presence of collagenases, stromelysins, and membrane-type MMPs indicate that human valve ICs have the capacity to remodel type I collagen scaffold and that the genes necessary for synthesizing matrix have been turned on within the cells themselves. Scaffold composition also demonstrated differential effects onMMPexpression. These observations are of relevance with respect to the development of tissue-engineered heart valves.

Magnetic resonance imaging of ferumoxide-labeled mesenchymal stem cells seeded on collagen scaffolds-relevance to tissue engineering.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a promising candidate cell for tissue engineering. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been proven effective in visualizing iron-labeled stem cells; however, the efficiency of this approach for visualization of cells seeded on scaffolds intended for use as tissue-engineered heart valves has not been assessed. MSCs were labeled by incubating for 48 h with ferumoxide and poly-L-lysine as transfecting agent. Any detrimental effect of iron labeling on cell viability, proliferation, and differentiation was examined using appropriate functional assays. Change in the nuclear magnetic relaxation properties of labeled cells was determined using in vitro relaxometry of cells seeded in 3-dimensional collagen gels. Images of labeled and non-labeled cells seeded onto 1% type I bovine collagen scaffolds were obtained using MRI. The presence of intracellular iron in labeled cells was demonstrated using Prussian blue staining, confocal microscopy, and electron microscopy. Cell viability, proliferation, and differentiation were comparable in labeled and non-labeled cells. The T2 relaxation time was 40% to 50% shorter in ferumoxide-labeled cells. Labeled cells seeded on scaffolds appeared as areas of reduced signal intensity in T2 weighted images. Ferumoxide labeling persisted and remained effective even on scans performed 4 weeks after the labeling procedure. Ferumoxide labeling of human MSCs seeded on collagen scaffolds is an effective, non-toxic technique for visualization of these cells using MRI. This technique appears promising for cell tracking in future tissue-engineering applications.

Embryoid body morphology influences diffusive transport of inductive biochemicals: a strategy for stem cell differentiation.

Differentiation of human embryonic stem (hES) cells into cells for regenerative medicine is often initiated by embryoid body (EB) formation. EBs may be treated with soluble biochemicals such as cytokines, growth factors and vitamins to induce differentiation. A scanning electron microscopy analysis, conducted over 14 days, revealed time-dependent changes in EB structure which led to the formation of a shell that significantly reduced the diffusive transport of a model molecule (374 Da) by >80%. We found that the shell consists of 1) an extracellular matrix (ECM) comprised of collagen type I; 2) a squamous cellular layer with tight cell-cell adhesions associated with E-cadherin; and 3) a collagen type IV lining indicative of a basement membrane. Disruption of the basement membrane, by either inhibiting its formation with noggin or permeabilizing it with collagenase, resulted in recovery of diffusive transport. Increasing the diffusive transport of retinoic acid (RA) and serum in EBs by a 15-min collagenase digestion on days 4, 5, 6 and 7 promoted neuronal differentiation. Flow cytometry and quantitative RT-PCR analysis of collagenase-treated EBs revealed 68% of cells expressing neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) relative to 28% for untreated EBs. Our results suggest that limitations in diffusive transport of biochemicals need to be considered when formulating EB differentiation strategies.

Controlling the processing of collagen-hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Scaffolds are an important aspect of the tissue engineering approach to tissue regeneration. This study shows that it is possible to manufacture scaffolds from type I collagen with or without hydroxyapatite (HA) by critical point drying. The mean pore sizes of the scaffolds can be altered from 44 to 135 microm depending on the precise processing conditions. Such pore sizes span the range that is likely to be required for specific cells. The mechanical properties of the scaffolds have been measured and behave as expected of foam structures. The degradation rate of the scaffolds by collagenase is independent of pore size. Dehydrothermal treatment (DHT), a common method of physically crosslinking collagen, was found to denature the collagen at a temperature of 120 degrees C resulting in a decrease in the scaffold's resistance to collagenase. Hybrid scaffold structures have also been manufactured, which have the potential to be used in the generation of multi-tissue interfaces. Microchannels are neatly incorporated via an indirect solid freeform fabrication (SFF) process, which could aid in reducing the different constraints commonly observed with other scaffolds.