PCGF homologs, CBX proteins, and RYBP define functionally distinct PRC1 family complexes.

The heterogeneous nature of mammalian PRC1 complexes has hindered our understanding of their biological functions. Here, we present a comprehensive proteomic and genomic analysis that uncovered six major groups of PRC1 complexes, each containing a distinct PCGF subunit, a RING1A/B ubiquitin ligase, and a unique set of associated polypeptides. These PRC1 complexes differ in their genomic localization, and only a small subset colocalize with H3K27me3. Further biochemical dissection revealed that the six PCGF-RING1A/B combinations form multiple complexes through association with RYBP or its homolog YAF2, which prevents the incorporation of other canonical PRC1 subunits, such as CBX, PHC, and SCM. Although both RYBP/YAF2- and CBX/PHC/SCM-containing complexes compact chromatin, only RYBP stimulates the activity of RING1B toward H2AK119ub1, suggesting a central role in PRC1 function. Knockdown of RYBP in embryonic stem cells compromised their ability to form embryoid bodies, likely because of defects in cell proliferation and maintenance of H2AK119ub1 levels.

BRAF mutation predicts sensitivity to MEK inhibition.

The kinase pathway comprising RAS, RAF, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) and extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) is activated in most human tumours, often through gain-of-function mutations of RAS and RAF family members. Using small-molecule inhibitors of MEK and an integrated genetic and pharmacologic analysis, we find that mutation of BRAF is associated with enhanced and selective sensitivity to MEK inhibition when compared to either 'wild-type' cells or cells harbouring a RAS mutation. This MEK dependency was observed in BRAF mutant cells regardless of tissue lineage, and correlated with both downregulation of cyclin D1 protein expression and the induction of G1 arrest. Pharmacological MEK inhibition completely abrogated tumour growth in BRAF mutant xenografts, whereas RAS mutant tumours were only partially inhibited. These data suggest an exquisite dependency on MEK activity in BRAF mutant tumours, and offer a rational therapeutic strategy for this genetically defined tumour subtype.

PRC1 sustains the integrity of neural fate in the absence of PRC2 function.

Polycomb repressive complexes (PRCs) 1 and 2 maintain stable cellular memories of early fate decisions by establishing heritable patterns of gene repression. PRCs repress transcription through histone modifications and chromatin compaction, but their roles in neuronal subtype diversification are poorly defined. We found that PRC1 is essential for the specification of segmentally restricted spinal motor neuron (MN) subtypes, while PRC2 activity is dispensable to maintain MN positional identities during terminal differentiation. Mutation of the core PRC1 component Ring1 in mice leads to increased chromatin accessibility and ectopic expression of a broad variety of fates determinants, including Hox transcription factors, while neuronal class-specific features are maintained. Loss of MN subtype identities in Ring1 mutants is due to the suppression of Hox-dependent specification programs by derepressed Hox13 paralogs (Hoxa13, Hoxb13, Hoxc13, Hoxd13). These results indicate that PRC1 can function in the absence of de novo PRC2-dependent histone methylation to maintain chromatin topology and postmitotic neuronal fate.

SNX2112, a synthetic heat shock protein 90 inhibitor, has potent antitumor activity against HER kinase-dependent cancers.

PURPOSE: The heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) chaperone plays an important role in transformation by regulating the conformational maturation and stability of oncogenic kinases and transcription factors. Ansamycins, such as 17-(allylamino)-17-demethoxygeldanmycin (17-AAG), inhibit Hsp90 function; induce the degradation of Hsp90 client proteins such as HER2, and have shown activity in early clinical trials. However, the utility of these drugs has been limited by their hepatotoxicity, poor solubility, and poorly tolerated formulations. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We determined the pharmacodynamic and antitumor properties of a novel, synthetic Hsp90 inhibitor, SNX-2112, in cell culture and xenograft models of HER kinase-dependent cancers. RESULTS: We show in a panel of tumor cell lines that SNX-2112 and its prodrug SNX-5542 are Hsp90 inhibitors with properties and potency similar to that of 17-AAG, including: degradation of HER2, mutant epidermal growth factor receptor, and other client proteins, inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and Akt activation, and induction of a Rb-dependent G(1) arrest with subsequent apoptosis. SNX-5542 can be administered to mice orally on a daily schedule. Following oral administration, SNX-5542 is rapidly converted to SNX-2112, which accumulates in tumors relative to normal tissues. A single dose of SNX-5542 causes HER2 degradation and inhibits its downstream signaling for up to 24 h, and daily dosing results in regression of HER2-dependent xenografts. SNX-5542 also shows greater activity than 17-AAG in a non-small cell lung cancer xenograft model expressing mutant EGFR. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that Hsp90 inhibition with SNX-2112 (delivered as a prodrug) may represent a promising therapeutic strategy for tumors whose growth and survival is dependent on Hsp90 clients.

Association with HSP90 inhibits Cbl-mediated down-regulation of mutant epidermal growth factor receptors.

Activating mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), localized in the activation loop within the kinase domain, have been discovered in non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC). Most of these mutants are exquisitely sensitive to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, suggesting that they generate receptor dependence in the cancers that express them. 32D cells stably expressing EGFR-L861Q and EGFR-L858R but not wild-type EGFR exhibited ligand-independent receptor phosphorylation and viability. Ligand-induced receptor down-regulation (LIRD) was impaired in mutant-expressing cells. The EGFR mutants were constitutively associated with the E3 ubiquitin ligase Cbl but did not associate with the adaptor protein CIN85 on the addition of ligand. Inhibition of HSP90 activity with geldanamycin restored Cbl function as indicated by receptor ubiquitination and LIRD. These results suggest that EGFR mutants form defective endocytic complexes. In addition, HSP90 plays a role in maintaining the functional conformation of EGFR mutants and protecting activated receptors from LIRD.

De Novo DNA Methylation: Marking the Path from Stem Cell to Neural Fate.

DNA methylation is an epigenetic mark that plays pivotal roles in gene regulation, but its functions in neural fate decisions are poorly understood. In this issue of Cell Stem Cell, Ziller et al. (2018) show that the de novo methyltransferase Dnmt3a ensures efficient generation of motor neurons from stem cells.

AKT inhibition relieves feedback suppression of receptor tyrosine kinase expression and activity.

Activation of the PI3K-AKT pathway in tumors is modulated by negative feedback, including mTORC1-mediated inhibition of upstream signaling. We now show that AKT inhibition induces the expression and phosphorylation of multiple receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). In a wide spectrum of tumor types, inhibition of AKT induces a conserved set of RTKs, including HER3, IGF-1R, and insulin receptor. This is in part due to mTORC1 inhibition and in part secondary to a FOXO-dependent activation of receptor expression. PI3K-AKT inhibitors relieve this feedback and activate RTK signaling; this may attenuate their antitumor activity. Consistent with this model, we find that, in tumors in which AKT suppresses HER3 expression, combined inhibition of AKT and HER kinase activity is more effective than either alone.

Inhibition of Hsp90 down-regulates mutant epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) expression and sensitizes EGFR mutant tumors to paclitaxel.

Mutations in the kinase domain of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) are found in a subset of patients with lung cancer and correlate with response to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI). Resistance to these agents invariably develops, and current treatment strategies have limited efficacy in this setting. Hsp90 inhibitors, such as 17-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-AAG), induce the degradation of EGFR and other Hsp90 interacting proteins and may thus have utility in tumors dependent upon sensitive Hsp90 clients. We find that the EGFR mutations found most commonly in patients with lung adenocarcinoma who respond to EGFR TKIs are potently degraded by 17-AAG. Although the expression of wild-type EGFR was also down-regulated by 17-AAG, its degradation required higher concentrations of drug and a longer duration of drug exposure. In animal models, a single dose of 17-AAG was sufficient to induce degradation of mutant EGFR and inhibit downstream signaling. 17-AAG treatment, at its maximal tolerated dose, caused a significant delay in H3255 (L858R EGFR) xenograft growth but was less effective than the EGFR TKI gefitinib. 17-AAG alone delayed, but did not completely inhibit, the growth of H1650 and H1975 xenografts, two EGFR mutant models which show intermediate and high levels of gefitinib resistance. 17-AAG could be safely coadministered with paclitaxel, and the combination was significantly more effective than either drug alone. These data suggest that Hsp90 inhibition in combination with chemotherapy may represent an effective treatment strategy for patients whose tumors express EGFR kinase domain mutations, including those with de novo and acquired resistance to EGFR TKIs.

Genetic predictors of MEK dependence in non-small cell lung cancer.

Hyperactivated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling is common in human cancer and is often the result of activating mutations in BRAF, RAS, and upstream receptor tyrosine kinases. To characterize the mitogen-activated protein kinase/ERK kinase (MEK)/ERK dependence of lung cancers harboring BRAF kinase domain mutations, we screened a large panel of human lung cancer cell lines (n = 87) and tumors (n = 916) for BRAF mutations. We found that non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC) cells with both V600E and non-V600E BRAF mutations were selectively sensitive to MEK inhibition compared with those harboring mutations in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), KRAS, or ALK and ROS kinase fusions. Supporting its classification as a "driver" mutation in the cells in which it is expressed, MEK inhibition in (V600E)BRAF NSCLC cells led to substantial induction of apoptosis, comparable with that seen with EGFR kinase inhibition in EGFR mutant NSCLC models. Despite high basal ERK phosphorylation, EGFR mutant cells were uniformly resistant to MEK inhibition. Conversely, BRAF mutant cell lines were resistant to EGFR inhibition. These data, together with the nonoverlapping pattern of EGFR and BRAF mutations in human lung cancer, suggest that these lesions define distinct clinical entities whose treatment should be guided by prospective real-time genotyping. To facilitate such an effort, we developed a mass spectrometry-based genotyping method for the detection of hotspot mutations in BRAF, KRAS, and EGFR. Using this assay, we confirmed that BRAF mutations can be identified in a minority of NSCLC tumors and that patients whose tumors harbor BRAF mutations have a distinct clinical profile compared with those whose tumors harbor kinase domain mutations in EGFR.

Development of new mouse lung tumor models expressing EGFR T790M mutants associated with clinical resistance to kinase inhibitors.

BACKGROUND: The EGFR T790M mutation confers acquired resistance to kinase inhibitors in human EGFR mutant lung adenocarcinoma, is occasionally detected before treatment, and may confer genetic susceptibility to lung cancer. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To study further its role in lung tumorigenesis, we developed mice with inducible expression in type II pneumocytes of EGFR(T790M) alone or together with a drug-sensitive L858R mutation. Both transgenic lines develop lung adenocarcinomas that require mutant EGFR for tumor maintenance but are resistant to an EGFR kinase inhibitor. EGFR(L858R+T790M)-driven tumors are transiently targeted by hsp90 inhibition. Notably, EGFR(T790M)-expressing animals develop tumors with longer latency than EGFR(L858R+T790M)-bearing mice and in the absence of additional kinase domain mutations. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: These new mouse models of mutant EGFR-dependent lung adenocarcinomas provide insight into clinical observations. The models should also be useful for developing improved therapies for patients with lung cancers harboring EGFR(T790M) alone or in conjunction with drug-sensitive EGFR kinase domain mutations.