Developing an adolescent and adult Fontan Management Programme.

Patients with single-ventricle CHD undergo a series of palliative surgeries that culminate in the Fontan procedure. While the Fontan procedure allows most patients to survive to adulthood, the Fontan circulation can eventually lead to multiple cardiac complications and multi-organ dysfunction. Care for adolescents and adults with a Fontan circulation has begun to transition from a primarily cardiac-focused model to care models, which are designed to monitor multiple organ systems, and using clues from this screening, identify patients who are at risk for adverse outcomes. The complexity of care required for these patients led our centre to develop a multidisciplinary Fontan Management Programme with the primary goals of earlier detection and treatment of complications through the development of a cohesive network of diverse medical subspecialists with Fontan expertise.

Pediatric trichodysplasia spinulosa: A report of 2 cases and review of the literature.

Trichodysplasia spinulosa is a rare disorder caused by the ubiquitous trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus (TSPyV) and characterized clinically by predominately centrofacial, but often generalized, folliculocentric papules with protuberant keratinaceous spines. Although seroprevalence reaches up to 70% in adult populations, TSPyV causes clinical manifestations in a small percentage of patients who are immunosuppressed. Diagnosis can be made using typical clinical and histologic features, SV40T antibody immunostaining, and PCR of various tissues including the keratinaceous spine, skin, serum, urine, and CSF. Various topical and systemic medications have demonstrated variable success. Decreasing or discontinuing immunosuppression has also been shown to improve or alleviate clinical manifestations.

Lung Transplantation for FLNA-Associated Progressive Lung Disease.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a series of patients with pathogenic variants in FLNA and progressive lung disease necessitating lung transplantation. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective chart review of 6 female infants with heterozygous presumed loss-of-function pathogenic variants in FLNA whose initial presentation was early and progressive respiratory failure. RESULTS: Each patient received lung transplantation at an average age of 11 months (range, 5-15 months). All patients had pulmonary arterial hypertension and chronic respiratory failure requiring tracheostomy and escalating levels of ventilator support before transplantation. All 6 patients survived initial lung transplantation; however, 1 patient died after a subsequent heart-lung transplant. The remaining 5 patients are living unrestricted lives on chronic immunosuppression at most recent follow-up (range, 19 months to 11.3 years post-transplantation). However, in all patients, severe ascending aortic dilation has been observed with aortic regurgitation. CONCLUSIONS: Respiratory failure secondary to progressive obstructive lung disease during infancy may be the presenting phenotype of FLNA-associated periventricular nodular heterotopia. We describe a cohort of patients with progressive respiratory failure related to a pathogenic variant in FLNA and present lung transplantation as a viable therapeutic option for this group of patients.

Rapid and progressive pulmonary fibrosis in 2 families with DNA repair deficiencies of undetermined etiology.

Known genetic causes of pediatric interstitial lung disease include disorders of surfactant metabolism, telomerase, and DNA repair. We report 4 children from 2 families with rapidly progressive and fatal pulmonary fibrosis. A novel DNA repair defect unrelated to the ataxia-telangiectasia mutated gene was found in 1 child from each family.

Heart-Lung Transplant via an Eighth-Time Sternotomy.

We report a combined heart-lung transplantation following seven prior sternotomies in a patient born with a transitional atrioventricular septal defect. Previous surgeries to repair and replace the mitral valve led to pulmonary vein stenosis and pulmonary vascular disease. Eighth-time sternotomy and significant vascular adhesions led to a prolonged operation and to placing the heart-lung block anterior to the phrenic nerves. Despite this, the patient was ready for discharge after two weeks and continues to do well over nine months later. As more patients survive multiple cardiac palliations with some developing pulmonary vascular disease, heart-lung transplantation may become relevant again.

Serum KL-6 level and the development of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome in lung transplant recipients.

KL-6 is a glycoprotein expressed by pulmonary epithelial cells, and its serum level has been used as a marker of disease activity in a variety of respiratory illnesses. Previously, we showed that KL-6 was elevated in lung transplant recipients diagnosed with BOS. In this study, we followed serum KL-6 levels and lung functions prospectively in lung transplant recipients who were within the first five-yr post-transplant and had no evidence of BOS at the time of study entry. Mean peak KL-6 levels were 596.16 ± 309.32 U/mL in the nine recipients who developed BOS compared to 352.41 ± 140.68 in 36 recipients who did not (p = 0.05). Six of the nine patients with BOS had an absolute rise in KL-6 above baseline level >200 U/mL compared to two of the 37 who had the same increase in KL-6 but did not develop BOS. Using the 200 U/mL elevation of KL-6 from baseline as a threshold for a positive test would produce a sensitivity of 67%, specificity of 95%, PPV of 75%, and a NPV of 92%. In addition, mean KL-6 levels of patients during acute rejection were not significantly elevated compared to the prerejection mean KL-6 levels (p = 0.71). We conclude that serum KL-6 is a relatively specific marker of BOS in lung transplant recipients.

Cerebral aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus granulosus.

Disseminated disease by Aspergillus granulosus has been reported only once previously in a cardiac transplant recipient. We report a fatal central nervous system infection in a lung transplant recipient. Key features of this species in the section Usti include growth at 37 degrees C and large, randomly spaced aggregates of variably shaped Hülle cells.

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease in pediatric lung transplant recipients: recent advances in monitoring.

To investigate the clinical validity of newer diagnostic tests such as monitoring of EBVqPCR and lymphocyte function assay ImmuKnow in helping to diagnose PTLD in pediatric lung transplant recipients. Single-center, retrospective case-control study. CsA trough levels, EBVqPCR and ImmuKnow (Cyclex Inc., Columbia, MD, USA) levels were measured serially as part of routine care. Re-transplant patients and patients who did not reach 12 months post-transplant at the time of analysis were excluded. Twenty-seven patients met the inclusion criteria. The study group consisted of seven patients who developed PTLD, five of which were EBV- recipients who received EBV+ lungs. The rest of the eligible patients served as controls. Median time to develop PTLD was 273 days (range: 166-343). One, two, three, six, and nine months after transplant, mean (+/-s.d.) CsA trough whole blood levels (ng/mL) were not different between the two groups: 378 +/- 38, 390 +/- 52, 402 +/- 89, 359 +/- 42, and 342 +/- 115, vs. 416 +/- 105, 347 +/- 64, 337 +/- 78, 333 +/- 86, and 281 +/- 54 [PTLD vs. no-PTLD, respectively (p > 0.05 for all time points)]. Mean (+/-s.d.) EBVqPCR levels (copies/mL) measured at three, six, and nine months post-transplant were significantly elevated in PTLD group compared to no-PTLD group: 84 +/- 99, 3384 +/- 7428 and 839 +/- 1444 vs. 9 +/- 26, 8 +/- 36 and 32 +/- 136, respectively (p < 0.05 for all time points). Mean (+/-s.d.) ImmuKnow levels (ATP ng/mL) at three, six, and nine months post-transplant were significantly lower in the PTLD group when compared with no-PTLD group: 144 +/- 67, 137 +/- 110, and 120 +/- 153 vs. 290 +/- 161, 300 +/- 162, and 293 +/- 190, respectively (p < 0.05 for all time points). Close monitoring of EBV viral load by qPCR and the degree of immunosuppression via ImmuKnow may guide physicians to reach the diagnosis of PTLD early.

Pediatric lung transplantation: a therapy in its adolescence.

Pediatric lung transplant was born at the University of Toronto as an extension of the pioneering work of Cooper and Patterson in adult lung transplant in the 1980s. Through the 1990s, the field of pediatric lung transplantation grew with clinical outcomes in the largest centers being comparable to those in adult lung transplantation. For children and adults, the largest obstacle to long-term survival remains chronic allograft rejection secondary to the development of bronchiolitis obliterans, for which little advancement has been made in prevention or treatment. While transplantation has become accepted therapy for end-stage lung disease in adults, pediatric lung transplant has been less widely embraced for multiple reasons, such as adolescent non-compliance and the investment required in developing freestanding pediatric lung transplant centers. Another factor limiting pediatric lung transplant has been the paucity of suitable donor lungs. In 2002, Texas Children's Hospital and the Baylor College of Medicine successfully collaborated in developing an active and successful pediatric lung transplant program. Through our own work and an international collaborative of pediatric transplant pulmonologists and surgeons, we are hoping to move the field of pediatric lung transplant out of its "adolescence" into adulthood.

Bronchial artery revascularization and en bloc lung transplant in children.

BACKGROUND: Long-term success in pediatric lung transplantation is limited by infection and bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS). The bilateral sequential lung transplantation (BSLT) technique may result in airway ischemia leading to bronchial stenosis, dehiscence, or loss of small airways. En bloc lung transplant (EBLT) with bronchial artery revascularization (BAR) minimizes airway ischemia, thus promoting superior airway healing. BAR also allows for safe tracheal anastomosis, circumventing the need for bilateral bronchial anastomoses in small children. METHODS: This was a retrospective review of bilateral transplantations from 2005 to 2014. Both techniques were used in parallel. Redo and multiorgan transplants were excluded. RESULTS: There were 119 recipients comprising 88 BSLTs and 31 EBLTs. Follow-up time was 3 years (interquartile range, 1-5 years). Donor ischemic and cardiopulmonary bypass times were not different between techniques (p = 0.48 and p = 0.18, respectively). Degree of graft dysfunction and cellular rejection scores were not different (p = 0.83 and p = 0.93, respectively). There were 3 hospital deaths after BSLT and 2 after EBLT (p = 0.60). Overall survival was 61% for the BSLT group and 77% for the EBLT group (p = 0.54). Freedom from BOS was 71% in the BSLT group and 94% in the EBLT group (p = 0.08). On routine bronchoscopy, 57% BSLT and 16% EBLT patients had 1 or more airway ischemic findings (p < 0.0001). Multivariate analysis showed BSLT was associated with higher ischemic injury (relative risk, 2.86; 95 confidence interval, 1.3-6.5; p = 0.01) and non-airway complications (relative risk, 4.62; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-20.2; p = 0.04) but not airway reinterventions (p = 0.07). Airway dehiscence occurred in 3 BSLT patients. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric EBLT with BAR can be safely performed without increasing operative or graft ischemic times. Airway ischemia and non-airway complications were significantly reduced when BAR was combined with tracheal anastomosis, potentially diminishing morbidity caused by anastomotic healing complications.

Survival in pediatric lung transplantation: The effect of center volume and expertise.

BACKGROUND: Institutional operative volume has been shown to impact outcomes of various procedures including lung transplantation (LTx). We sought to determine whether this holds true with pediatric LTx by comparing outcomes of adult centers (with larger overall volume) to those of pediatric centers (with smaller volume but more pediatric-specific experience). METHODS: A retrospective analysis of the Organ Procurement and Transplant Network data was performed. Centers were categorized as either adult (LTx volume predominantly in adult patients), high-volume pediatric (HVP, ≥4 LTxs/year), or low-volume pediatric (LVP, <4 LTxs/year). Outcomes were compared in "younger children" (<12 years) and "older children and adolescents" (12 to 17 years). RESULTS: In total, 1,046 pediatric LTxs were performed between 1987 and 2012 at 62 centers (adult 51 [82%], HVP 3 [5%], LVP 8 [13%]). Although adult centers had larger overall LTx volume, their pediatric experiences were severely limited (median 1/year). In younger children, HVP centers were significantly better than LVP centers for patient survival (half-life: 7.3 vs 2.9 years, p = 0.002). Similarly, in older children and adolescents, HVP centers were significantly better than adult centers for patient survival (half-life: 4.6 vs 2.5 years, p = 0.001). Of note, even LVP centers tended to have longer patient survival than adult centers (p = 0.064). Multivariable analysis identified adult centers as an independent risk factor for graft failure (hazard ratio: 1.5, p < 0.001) as with LVP (hazard ratio: 1.3, p = 0.0078). CONCLUSIONS: Despite larger overall clinical volume, outcomes among pediatric LTx recipients in adult centers are not superior to those of pediatric centers. Not only center volume but pediatric-specific experience has an impact on outcomes in pediatric LTx.

Is lung transplantation survival better in infants? Analysis of over 80 infants.

BACKGROUND: There have been >1,600 pediatric lung transplantations (LTx) performed worldwide with a trend toward improved outcomes over the last 25 years. The majority of these LTxs have been in older children and adolescents. Less than 4 infant (defined as ≤ 12 months of age) LTxs per year have been performed over the past 20 years, mostly in the USA. However, infant LTx outcomes have not been well documented in a multi-institutional longitudinal fashion. METHODS: The United Network of Organ Sharing database was queried from October 1987 to July 2011. Of the 1,003 pediatric LTxs reported, 84 (8%) were infants. All combined transplantations were excluded. RESULTS: Eighty-one infants received 84 LTxs, of which 95% had a bilateral LTx. Median age and weight at LTx was 4 months (range 0 to 11 months) and 5.3 kg (2.7 to 11.8 kg), respectively. Median ischemic time was 5.2 hours (2.0 to 10.8 hours). Overall Kaplan-Meier graft survival was similar for infants compared with other pediatric age group (OPA: >1 to 18 years) LTx recipients (half-life 4.0 years vs 3.4 years, p = 0.7). Conditional 1-year graft survival for infants was significantly higher than OPA (half-life 7.4 years vs 5.0 years, p = 0.024). Early (1987 to 2000, n = 46) and late (2001 to 2011, n = 38) era graft survival was not significantly different. Graft survival in pre-LTx ventilated infants was significantly better than pre-LTx ventilated OPA (half-life 6.1 years vs 0.9 year, p = 0.004) and was not statistically different from pre-LTx infants not on ventilatory support (half-life 6.1 years vs 2.2 years, p = 0.152). Cox regression of 5 variables (weight, donor arterial PO(2), pre-Tx ventilator, organ ischemic time, center experience) showed that survival was associated with increased center experience (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: Infants undergoing LTx have outcomes similar to those of all other pediatric LTx patients.

Changes in body composition after lung transplantation in children.

BACKGROUND: The evaluation of nutritional status, including body composition measurements, in pediatric patients before and after lung transplant (LTx) can aid in adapting nutrition support and physical rehabilitation programs to meet individual patient needs. The purpose of this retrospective study was to determine the changes in weight, lean body mass (LBM), and body fat (BF) before and after LTx and their association with lung function in pediatric patients. METHODS: Included were 41 LTx patients, aged 3 months to 20.7 years, who had at least 2 body composition measurements determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (GE Lunar Prodigy, Waukesha, WI) in the first 2 years after LTx were measured pre-LTX and at 12 or 24 months post-LTX, for weight, LBM, and BF. RESULTS: Pre-LTx, 29% of patients had moderate and 12% had severe chronic malnutrition (growth stunting). This compares with 21% of patients being moderately LBM-depleted and 23% being BF-depleted. The weight change at 12 and 24 months was +9.3% (interquartile range, 5.6%-23%) and +4.7% (0.9%-11.6%), respectively; whereas the LBM change at 12 and 24 months was +15.2% (6.8%-17.1%) and +4.2% (-0.6% to 7.7%), respectively. LBM percentiles correlated with pulmonary function tests ( % predicted forced vital capacity [ρ = 0.36, p = 0.001] and forced expiratory volume in 1 second [ρ = 0.265, p = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS: Maximum weight and LBM gain occur at 12 months after LTx, with smaller gains noted at 24 months. Clinicians must look beyond height and weight and evaluate LBM and fat mass in pediatric patients after LTx.

Lung transplantation for childhood diffuse lung disease.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric diffuse lung diseases comprise a heterogeneous group of rare lung disorders which may lead to end stage lung disease and referral for lung transplantation. Previous studies are limited by small numbers of patients with specific forms of diffuse lung disease. Children with all forms of diffuse lung disease who underwent lung transplantation at two pediatric centers were evaluated in terms of several pre- and post-transplant factors and compared to children with other end stage lung disorders. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was performed on all patients transplanted between October 1, 2002 and June 15, 2007 at Texas Children's Hospital and St. Louis Children's Hospital. Multiple pre-transplant characteristics and post-transplant morbidities and mortality were compared between diffuse lung disease, cystic fibrosis, and pulmonary vascular disease groups. RESULTS: There were 31 diffuse lung disease (DLD), 57 cystic fibrosis (CF), and 16 pulmonary vascular disease (PVD) patients included in our analysis. Patients with DLD had significantly higher pre-transplant morbidity including lower percent predicted of forced expiratory volume in first second (P = 0.013) and more patients with pulmonary hypertension (P = 0.001) and hypercapnia (P = 0.031). Compared to CF patients, more DLD and PVD patients required invasive ventilation (P = 0.001) and care in the pediatric intensive care unit (P = 0.001). After transplant, there was a difference among the three groups with regards to number of acute allograft rejections but statistical limitations preclude knowing between which group the difference lies. A difference in time to bronchiolitis obliterans was found between the PVD and CF groups but not when compared to the DLD patients. The three groups had similar time to post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease, rate of infections, and survival. CONCLUSION: Lung transplantation is as successful for patients with end stage diffuse lung disease as compared to other lung transplant candidates.

Decline in 25% to 75% forced expiratory flow as an early predictor of chronic airway rejection in pediatric lung transplant recipients.

BACKGROUND: Bronchiolitis obliterans (BO) is the major obstacle to long-term lung allograft viability. Its clinical correlate, BO syndrome (BOS), is defined as a decline of at least 20% in forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV(1)) from baseline. BOS is often diagnosed after significant organ dysfunction has occurred. Because BO is a small-airways disease, we hypothesized that a 20% decline in the 25% to 75% forced expiratory flow (FEF(25-75)) from baseline should occur before a decline in FEV(1) and should predict progression to BOS with high sensitivity and specificity. METHODS: Pulmonary function tests and records of pediatric lung transplantation patients at Texas Children's Hospital from 2002 to 2007 were reviewed. Declines in FEV(1) and FEF(25-75) from the best post-transplant baseline values were recorded and analyzed. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were calculated. RESULTS: Thirty-one patients were eligible for the study. In 11 BOS patients, the mean±standard deviation number of days from transplant until a 20% decline in FEV(1) was 896.5±400 compared with 728.0±475 (p = 0.022) until a 20% decline in FEF(25-75) was reached. The sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive and negative predictive values of a 20% reduction in FEF(25-75) in determining BOS were 100%, 90.0%, 84.6%, and 100%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: All patients who developed BOS had a decline in FEF(25-75) at or before the decline in FEV(1). The reduction in FEF(25-75) occurred statistically significantly earlier than the decline in FEV(1), by an average of 168.5 days. This decline in FEF(25-75) was also highly sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of BOS.

Does donor arterial partial pressure of oxygen affect outcomes after lung transplantation? A review of more than 12,000 lung transplants.

INTRODUCTION: In lung transplantation (LTx), the arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO(2)) is traditionally regarded as critical information for assessment of donor lung function. Each center sets its own thresholds; by convention, a donor PaO(2) of less than 300 mm Hg has been considered disqualifying. Limited literature exists to support such a practice. We analyzed all LTxs performed in the United States over a 9-year period to assess the effect of donor PaO(2) on graft survival. METHODS: The United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) database was queried for LTx (January 2000-November 2009). Of 12,545 LTx performed, 12,045 (96%) had donor PaO(2) data on a fraction of inspired oxygen of 1.0, recorded at the time of procurement. RESULTS: Mean donor PaO(2) was 407 ± 140 mm Hg. The majority of LTxs had a donor PaO(2) greater than 300 mm Hg (9593 (80%]) whereas PaO(2) was 200 mm Hg or less in 1830 (15%) and 201 to 300 in 582 (5%) donors. Use of donors with a PaO(2) of less than 200 increased over time from 5% (45) in 2000 to 21% (295) in 2009 (P = .002). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed no difference in graft survival with differing donor PaO(2)s, irrespective of whether patients had a single or double LTx. A Cox multivariable analysis of 21 donor characteristics demonstrated that donor PaO(2) had no association with graft survival. CONCLUSIONS: Donor PaO(2) levels did not affect graft survival. The use of donors with lower PaO(2)s could substantially increase the donor pool. We are not suggesting that donor PaO(2) is not important when assessing potential lung donors but its level of importance in regard to other criteria appears less than previously believed.

Lung retransplantation in children: appropriate when selectively applied.

BACKGROUND: Lung retransplantation (re-LTx) in children has been associated with lower survival rates compared with primary lung transplantation. However, improving survival for primary LTx has led to more patients presenting for re-LTx. Therefore, an analysis of the UNOS (United Network of Organ Sharing) database to evaluate the effectiveness of pediatric lung retransplantation in the United States was completed. METHODS: The UNOS registry was queried for pediatric re-LTx patients from May 1988 to May 2008. There were 81 (10%) re-LTx out of a total 802 pediatric lung transplants. RESULTS: Median age and weight at re-LTx were 14 (range, 0 to 18) years and 32 (4 to 58) kg. Indications for re-LTx were obliterative bronchiolitis in 50 patients (62%), primary graft failure in 8 (10%), and other in 23 (28%). The Kaplan-Meier graft survival for re-LTx patients was worse than for primary transplant patients (p < 0.001, graft half-life 0.9 vs 4.0 years), especially if re-LTx was done less than 1 year after primary transplant (graft half-life 0.25 years). Graft survival in patients who underwent re-LTx greater than 1 year after primary transplant was not statistically different than for primary LTx patients (p = 0.21; graft half-life 2.8 vs 4.0 years), and if re-LTx greater than 1 year posttransplant occurred in patients who were not ventilator dependent, survival was further improved (p = 0.68; graft half-life 4.7 vs 4.0 years). CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric lung retransplantation within the first year after primary transplant does not appear advisable. Pediatric re-LTx greater than 1 year after primary transplantation may be a reasonable strategy for end-stage graft failure. Patients greater than 1 year posttransplant and not ventilator dependent appear an even more compelling group in which to consider lung retransplantation.

Two decades of pediatric lung transplant in the United States: have we improved?

OBJECTIVE: Since 1988, approximately 1100 pediatric lung transplants have been performed worldwide with consistent improvement in survival. Similarly, survival for pediatric heart transplant has increased over the years; however, in this cohort improvement in survival is exclusively a result of increased early (1-year) survival. To observe if this same phenomenon exists in pediatric lung transplants, the United Network for Organ Sharing database was analyzed to evaluate and characterize how pediatric lung transplant survival has changed in the past 2 decades. METHODS: The United Network for Organ Sharing database was queried for patients aged 18 years or less who underwent lung transplantation from May 1988 to May 2008. Analysis included 959 pediatric lung transplants. RESULTS: Age groups were infants (≤1 years) (n = 106 [11%]), children (2-12 years) (n = 299 [31%]), and adolescents (≥13 years) (n = 554 [58%]). A total of 546 (57%) were girls. Kaplan-Meier survival was significantly better in the late era (2002-2008) than in all other eras (1988-1994 and 1995-2001) (P < .05). The half-life for graft has increased significantly over the eras (early, 2.2 years; mid, 3.3 years; and late, 3.8 years). Conditional 1-year survival (ie, mid to late survival) was not significantly different (P = .3) among the eras. Gender, age, diagnosis, prolonged ischemic time, and cytomegalovirus mismatch did not significantly affect overall patient or graft survival. Chronic preoperative steroid dependence (P = .02), preoperative ventilatory dependence (P < .001), and retransplantation (P = .02) were associated with decreased survival. CONCLUSIONS: Survival in pediatric lung transplant has increased significantly over the years, but this improvement primarily reflects improvement in early survival. Survival in pediatric lung transplant after the first posttransplant year has not changed in more than 2 decades.

Management of the pediatric organ donor to optimize lung donation.

Lung transplantation in childhood is a highly specialized clinical practice confined to a few centers around the world. Organ availability remains an important limiting factor in extending the application of this procedure to more infants, children and adolescents. The lungs are the organ most vulnerable to injury, infection and dysfunction among transplantable organs in the brain dead deceased donor. In this manuscript, we review the pathophysiology of the most common and important disease states that affect the lungs in potential donors. Furthermore, we herein provide recommendations for optimal management of the pediatric organ donor with an emphasis on strategies to improve the opportunity for the lungs to be placed in candidates on the transplant list.

Fungal infections in pediatric lung transplant recipients: colonization and invasive disease.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the epidemiology and investigate the impact of colonization and pulmonary fungal infections (PFIs). METHODS: In this investigation we performed a retrospective analysis of 55 pediatric lung transplant recipients from 2002 to 2007 at a single institution. Associations between risk factors and time to post-transplant colonization, PFI, and other outcomes were assessed using Cox proportional hazard models. RESULTS: Although 29 patients had positive pre-transplant colonization, 33 (60%) were colonized post-transplant and 20% (11 subjects) developed proven or probable PFI. In a multivariate model, post-transplant fungal colonization was associated with older age (hazard ratio [HR] 2.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1 to 7.6), cytomegalovirus (CMV) prophylaxis (HR 5.6, 95% CI 1.3 to 24.6) and respiratory viral infection prior to fungal colonization (HR 2.9, 95% CI 1.0 to 8.3). CONCLUSION: Neither fungal colonization nor PFI was associated with the development of chronic allograft rejection or death.