The Lin28/let-7 axis regulates glucose metabolism.

The let-7 tumor suppressor microRNAs are known for their regulation of oncogenes, while the RNA-binding proteins Lin28a/b promote malignancy by inhibiting let-7 biogenesis. We have uncovered unexpected roles for the Lin28/let-7 pathway in regulating metabolism. When overexpressed in mice, both Lin28a and LIN28B promote an insulin-sensitized state that resists high-fat-diet induced diabetes. Conversely, muscle-specific loss of Lin28a or overexpression of let-7 results in insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance. These phenomena occur, in part, through the let-7-mediated repression of multiple components of the insulin-PI3K-mTOR pathway, including IGF1R, INSR, and IRS2. In addition, the mTOR inhibitor, rapamycin, abrogates Lin28a-mediated insulin sensitivity and enhanced glucose uptake. Moreover, let-7 targets are enriched for genes containing SNPs associated with type 2 diabetes and control of fasting glucose in human genome-wide association studies. These data establish the Lin28/let-7 pathway as a central regulator of mammalian glucose metabolism.

Transcriptomic analysis of the ocular posterior segment completes a cell atlas of the human eye.

Although the visual system extends through the brain, most vision loss originates from defects in the eye. Its central element is the neural retina, which senses light, processes visual signals, and transmits them to the rest of the brain through the optic nerve (ON). Surrounding the retina are numerous other structures, conventionally divided into anterior and posterior segments. Here, we used high-throughput single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) to classify and characterize cells in six extraretinal components of the posterior segment: ON, optic nerve head (ONH), peripheral sclera, peripapillary sclera (PPS), choroid, and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Defects in each of these tissues are associated with blinding diseases-for example, glaucoma (ONH and PPS), optic neuritis (ON), retinitis pigmentosa (RPE), and age-related macular degeneration (RPE and choroid). From ~151,000 single nuclei, we identified 37 transcriptomically distinct cell types, including multiple types of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, fibroblasts, and vascular endothelial cells. Our analyses revealed a differential distribution of many cell types among distinct structures. Together with our previous analyses of the anterior segment and retina, the data presented here complete a "Version 1" cell atlas of the human eye. We used this atlas to map the expression of >180 genes associated with the risk of developing glaucoma, which is known to involve ocular tissues in both anterior and posterior segments as well as the neural retina. Similar methods can be used to investigate numerous additional ocular diseases, many of which are currently untreatable.

Glaucoma-Protective Human Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism in the Angpt2 Locus Increased ANGPT2 Expression and Schlemm Canal Area in Mice-Brief Report.

BACKGROUND: The ANGPT (angiopoietin)-TEK (tyrosine kinase, endothelial) vascular signaling pathway plays a key role in the formation of Schlemm canal, and loss-of-function mutations in the TEK or ANGPT1 gene are associated with primary congenital glaucoma in children. In genome-wide association studies, an association was identified between protection from primary open-angle glaucoma and the single-nucleotide polymorphism rs76020419 (G>T), located within a predicted miR-145-binding site in the 3' untranslated region of ANGPT2. To date, the functional impact of this variant in the anterior chamber of the eye remains largely unexplored. METHODS: MT (mutant) mice harboring an orthologous rs76020419 minor allele (T) were generated using CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat-associated 9). Plasma and tissue samples, including eyes, were collected, and ANGPT2 expression was quantified using ELISA. Anterior segments from eyes were collected from WT (wild-type) and MT mice, and Schlemm canal area was quantified. RESULTS: In the MT group, higher ANGPT2 concentrations were observed in the plasma, lungs, kidneys, and eyes (P=0.0212, P<0.001, P=0.0815, and P=0.0215, respectively). Additionally, the Schlemm canal was larger in MT mice compared with WT mice (P=0.0430). CONCLUSIONS: The rs76020419 minor allele (T) is associated with increased levels of ANGPT2 and a larger Schlemm canal in mice. These findings suggest a potential protective mechanism in glaucoma.

Predicting molecular mechanisms of hereditary diseases by using their tissue-selective manifestation.

How do aberrations in widely expressed genes lead to tissue-selective hereditary diseases? Previous attempts to answer this question were limited to testing a few candidate mechanisms. To answer this question at a larger scale, we developed "Tissue Risk Assessment of Causality by Expression" (TRACE), a machine learning approach to predict genes that underlie tissue-selective diseases and selectivity-related features. TRACE utilized 4,744 biologically interpretable tissue-specific gene features that were inferred from heterogeneous omics datasets. Application of TRACE to 1,031 disease genes uncovered known and novel selectivity-related features, the most common of which was previously overlooked. Next, we created a catalog of tissue-associated risks for 18,927 protein-coding genes (https://netbio.bgu.ac.il/trace/). As proof-of-concept, we prioritized candidate disease genes identified in 48 rare-disease patients. TRACE ranked the verified disease gene among the patient's candidate genes significantly better than gene prioritization methods that rank by gene constraint or tissue expression. Thus, tissue selectivity combined with machine learning enhances genetic and clinical understanding of hereditary diseases.

The Clinical Usefulness of a Glaucoma Polygenic Risk Score in 4 Population-Based European Ancestry Cohorts.

PURPOSE: We used a polygenic risk score (PRS) to identify high-risk groups for primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) within population-based cohorts. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of 4 prospective population-based studies. PARTICIPANTS: We included four European-ancestry cohorts: the United States-based Nurses' Health Study, Nurses' Health Study 2, and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study and the Rotterdam Study (RS) in The Netherlands. The United States cohorts included female nurses and male health professionals ≤ 55 years of age. The RS included residents ≤ 45 years of age living in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. METHODS: Polygenic risk score weights were estimated by applying the lassosum method on imputed genotype and phenotype data from the UK Biobank. This resulted in 144 020 variants, single nucleotide polymorphism and insertions or deletions, with nonzero ßs that we used to calculate a PRS in the target populations. Using multivariable Cox proportional hazard models, we estimated the relationship between the standardized PRS and relative risk for POAG. Additionally, POAG prediction was tested by calculating these models' concordance (Harrell's C statistic). Finally, we assessed the association between PRS tertiles and glaucoma-related traits. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The relative risk for POAG and Harrell's C statistic. RESULTS: Among 1046 patients and 38 809‬ control participants, the relative risk (95% confidence interval) for POAG for participants in the highest PRS quintile was 3.99 (3.08-5.18) times higher in the United States cohorts and 4.89 (2.93-8.17) times higher in the RS, compared with participants with median genetic risk (third quintile). Combining age, sex, intraocular pressure of more than 25 mmHg, and family history resulted in a meta-analyzed concordance of 0.75 (95% CI, 0.73-0.75). Adding the PRS to this model improved the concordance to 0.82 (95% CI, 0.80-0.84). In a meta-analysis of all cohorts, patients in the highest tertile showed a larger cup-to-disc ratio at diagnosis, by 0.10 (95% CI, 0.06 0.14), and a 2.07-fold increased risk of requiring glaucoma surgery (95% CI, 1.19-3.60). CONCLUSIONS: Incorporating a PRS into a POAG predictive model improves identification concordance from 0.75 up to 0.82, supporting its potential for guiding more cost-effective screening strategies. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

Deep Learning of the Retina Enables Phenome- and Genome-Wide Analyses of the Microvasculature.

BACKGROUND: The microvasculature, the smallest blood vessels in the body, has key roles in maintenance of organ health and tumorigenesis. The retinal fundus is a window for human in vivo noninvasive assessment of the microvasculature. Large-scale complementary machine learning-based assessment of the retinal vasculature with phenome-wide and genome-wide analyses may yield new insights into human health and disease. METHODS: We used 97 895 retinal fundus images from 54 813 UK Biobank participants. Using convolutional neural networks to segment the retinal microvasculature, we calculated vascular density and fractal dimension as a measure of vascular branching complexity. We associated these indices with 1866 incident International Classification of Diseases-based conditions (median 10-year follow-up) and 88 quantitative traits, adjusting for age, sex, smoking status, and ethnicity. RESULTS: Low retinal vascular fractal dimension and density were significantly associated with higher risks for incident mortality, hypertension, congestive heart failure, renal failure, type 2 diabetes, sleep apnea, anemia, and multiple ocular conditions, as well as corresponding quantitative traits. Genome-wide association of vascular fractal dimension and density identified 7 and 13 novel loci, respectively, that were enriched for pathways linked to angiogenesis (eg, vascular endothelial growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor receptor, angiopoietin, and WNT signaling pathways) and inflammation (eg, interleukin, cytokine signaling). CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that the retinal vasculature may serve as a biomarker for future cardiometabolic and ocular disease and provide insights into genes and biological pathways influencing microvascular indices. Moreover, such a framework highlights how deep learning of images can quantify an interpretable phenotype for integration with electronic health record, biomarker, and genetic data to inform risk prediction and risk modification.

TIE1 and TEK signalling, intraocular pressure, and primary open-angle glaucoma: a Mendelian randomization study.

BACKGROUND: In primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG), lowering intraocular pressure (IOP) is the only proven way of slowing vision loss. Schlemm's canal (SC) is a hybrid vascular and lymphatic vessel that mediates aqueous humour drainage from the anterior ocular chamber. Animal studies support the importance of SC endothelial angiopoietin-TEK signalling, and more recently TIE1 signalling, in maintaining normal IOP. However, human genetic support for a causal role of TIE1 and TEK signalling in lowering IOP is currently lacking. METHODS: GWAS summary statistics were obtained for plasma soluble TIE1 (sTIE1) protein levels (N = 35,559), soluble TEK (sTEK) protein levels (N = 35,559), IOP (N = 139,555) and POAG (Ncases = 16,677, Ncontrols = 199,580). Mendelian randomization (MR) was performed to estimate the association of genetically proxied TIE1 and TEK protein levels with IOP and POAG liability. Where significant MR estimates were obtained, genetic colocalization was performed to assess the probability of a shared causal variant (PPshared) versus distinct (PPdistinct) causal variants underlying TIE1/TEK signalling and the outcome. Publicly available single-nucleus RNA-sequencing data were leveraged to investigate differential expression of TIE1 and TEK in the human ocular anterior segment. RESULTS: Increased genetically proxied TIE1 signalling and TEK signalling associated with a reduction in IOP (- 0.21 mmHg per SD increase in sTIE1, 95% CI = - 0.09 to - 0.33 mmHg, P = 6.57 × 10-4, and - 0.14 mmHg per SD decrease in sTEK, 95% CI = - 0.03 to - 0.25 mmHg, P = 0.011), but not with POAG liability. Colocalization analysis found that the probability of a shared causal variant was greater for TIE1 and IOP than for TEK and IOP (PPshared/(PPdistinct + PPshared) = 0.98 for TIE1 and 0.30 for TEK). In the anterior segment, TIE1 and TEK were preferentially expressed in SC, lymphatic, and vascular endothelium. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides novel human genetic support for a causal role of both TIE1 and TEK signalling in regulating IOP. Here, combined evidence from cis-MR and colocalization analyses provide stronger support for TIE1 than TEK as a potential IOP-lowering therapeutic target.

Photoreceptor Layer Thinning Is an Early Biomarker for Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Epidemiologic and Genetic Evidence from UK Biobank OCT Data.

PURPOSE: Despite widespread use of OCT, an early-stage imaging biomarker for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) has not been identified. Pathophysiologically, the timing of drusen accumulation in relationship to photoreceptor degeneration in AMD remains unclear, as are the inherited genetic variants contributing to these processes. Herein, we jointly analyzed OCT, electronic health record data, and genomic data to characterize the time sequence of changes in retinal layer thicknesses in AMD, as well as epidemiologic and genetic associations between retinal layer thicknesses and AMD. DESIGN: Cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-four thousand eight hundred twenty-three individuals from the UK Biobank (enrollment age range, 40-70 years; 54% women; median follow-up, 10 years). METHODS: The Topcon Advanced Boundary Segmentation algorithm was used for retinal layer segmentation. We associated 9 retinal layer thicknesses with prevalent AMD (present at enrollment) in a logistic regression model and with incident AMD (diagnosed after enrollment) in a Cox proportional hazards model. Next, we associated AMD-associated genetic alleles, individually and as a polygenic risk score (PRS), with retinal layer thicknesses. All analyses were adjusted for age, age-squared (age2), sex, smoking status, and principal components of ancestry. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalent and incident AMD. RESULTS: Photoreceptor segment (PS) thinning was observed throughout the lifespan of individuals analyzed, whereas retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and Bruch's membrane (BM) complex thickening started after 57 years of age. Each standard deviation (SD) of PS thinning and RPE-BM complex thickening was associated with incident AMD (PS: hazard ratio [HR], 1.35; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.23-1.47; P = 3.7 × 10-11; RPE-BM complex: HR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.06-1.22; P = 0.00024). The AMD PRS was associated with PS thinning (ß, -0.21 SD per twofold genetically increased risk of AMD; 95% CI, -0.23 to -0.19; P = 2.8 × 10-74), and its association with RPE-BM complex was U-shaped (thinning with AMD PRS less than the 92nd percentile and thickening with AMD PRS more than the 92nd percentile). The loci with strongest support for genetic correlation were AMD risk-raising variants Complement Factor H (CFH):rs570618-T, CFH:rs10922109-C, and Age-Related Maculopathy Susceptibility 2 (ARMS2)/High-Temperature Requirement Serine Protease 1 (HTRA1):rs3750846-C on PS thinning and SYN3/Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloprotease 3 (TIMP3):rs5754227-T on RPE-BM complex thickening. CONCLUSIONS: Epidemiologically, PS thinning precedes RPE-BM complex thickening by decades and is the retinal layer most strongly predictive of future AMD risk. Genetically, AMD risk variants are associated with decreased PS thickness. Overall, these findings support PS thinning as an early-stage biomarker for future AMD development.

Characteristics of p.Gln368Ter Myocilin Variant and Influence of Polygenic Risk on Glaucoma Penetrance in the UK Biobank.

PURPOSE: MYOC (myocilin) mutations account for 3% to 5% of primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) cases. We aimed to understand the true population-wide penetrance and characteristics of glaucoma among individuals with the most common MYOC variant (p.Gln368Ter) and the impact of a POAG polygenic risk score (PRS) in this population. DESIGN: Cross-sectional population-based study. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals with the p.Gln368Ter variant among 77 959 UK Biobank participants with fundus photographs (FPs). METHODS: A genome-wide POAG PRS was computed, and 2 masked graders reviewed FPs for disc-defined glaucoma (DDG). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Penetrance of glaucoma. RESULTS: Two hundred individuals carried the p.Gln368Ter heterozygous genotype, and 177 had gradable FPs. One hundred thirty-two showed no evidence of glaucoma, 45 (25.4%) had probable/definite glaucoma in at least 1 eye, and 19 (10.7%) had bilateral glaucoma. No differences were found in age, race/ethnicity, or gender among groups (P > 0.05). Of those with DDG, 31% self-reported or had International Classification of Diseases codes for glaucoma, whereas 69% were undiagnosed. Those with DDG had higher medication-adjusted cornea-corrected intraocular pressure (IOPcc) (P < 0.001) vs. those without glaucoma. This difference in IOPcc was larger in those with DDG with a prior glaucoma diagnosis versus those not diagnosed (P < 0.001). Most p.Gln368Ter carriers showed IOP in the normal range (≤21 mmHg), although this proportion was lower in those with DDG (P < 0.02) and those with prior glaucoma diagnosis (P < 0.03). Prevalence of DDG increased with each decile of POAG PRS. Individuals with DDG demonstrated significantly higher PRS compared with those without glaucoma (0.37 ± 0.97 vs. 0.01 ± 0.90; P = 0.03). Of those with DDG, individuals with a prior diagnosis of glaucoma had higher PRS compared with undiagnosed individuals (1.31 ± 0.64 vs. 0.00 ± 0.81; P < 0.001) and 27.5 times (95% confidence interval, 2.5-306.6) adjusted odds of being in the top decile of PRS for POAG. CONCLUSIONS: One in 4 individuals with the MYOC p.Gln368Ter mutation demonstrated evidence of glaucoma, a substantially higher penetrance than previously estimated, with 69% of cases undetected. A large portion of p.Gln368Ter carriers, including those with DDG, have IOP in the normal range, despite similar age. Polygenic risk score increases disease penetrance and severity, supporting the usefulness of PRS in risk stratification among MYOC p.Gln368Ter carriers.

Widespread Allelic Heterogeneity in Complex Traits.

Recent successes in genome-wide association studies (GWASs) make it possible to address important questions about the genetic architecture of complex traits, such as allele frequency and effect size. One lesser-known aspect of complex traits is the extent of allelic heterogeneity (AH) arising from multiple causal variants at a locus. We developed a computational method to infer the probability of AH and applied it to three GWASs and four expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) datasets. We identified a total of 4,152 loci with strong evidence of AH. The proportion of all loci with identified AH is 4%-23% in eQTLs, 35% in GWASs of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and 23% in GWASs of schizophrenia. For eQTLs, we observed a strong correlation between sample size and the proportion of loci with AH (R2 = 0.85, p = 2.2 × 10-16), indicating that statistical power prevents identification of AH in other loci. Understanding the extent of AH may guide the development of new methods for fine mapping and association mapping of complex traits.

Colocalization of GWAS and eQTL Signals Detects Target Genes.

The vast majority of genome-wide association study (GWAS) risk loci fall in non-coding regions of the genome. One possible hypothesis is that these GWAS risk loci alter the individual's disease risk through their effect on gene expression in different tissues. In order to understand the mechanisms driving a GWAS risk locus, it is helpful to determine which gene is affected in specific tissue types. For example, the relevant gene and tissue could play a role in the disease mechanism if the same variant responsible for a GWAS locus also affects gene expression. Identifying whether or not the same variant is causal in both GWASs and expression quantitative trail locus (eQTL) studies is challenging because of the uncertainty induced by linkage disequilibrium and the fact that some loci harbor multiple causal variants. However, current methods that address this problem assume that each locus contains a single causal variant. In this paper, we present eCAVIAR, a probabilistic method that has several key advantages over existing methods. First, our method can account for more than one causal variant in any given locus. Second, it can leverage summary statistics without accessing the individual genotype data. We use both simulated and real datasets to demonstrate the utility of our method. Using publicly available eQTL data on 45 different tissues, we demonstrate that eCAVIAR can prioritize likely relevant tissues and target genes for a set of glucose- and insulin-related trait loci.

Integrative genomics reveals novel molecular pathways and gene networks for coronary artery disease.

The majority of the heritability of coronary artery disease (CAD) remains unexplained, despite recent successes of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in identifying novel susceptibility loci. Integrating functional genomic data from a variety of sources with a large-scale meta-analysis of CAD GWAS may facilitate the identification of novel biological processes and genes involved in CAD, as well as clarify the causal relationships of established processes. Towards this end, we integrated 14 GWAS from the CARDIoGRAM Consortium and two additional GWAS from the Ottawa Heart Institute (25,491 cases and 66,819 controls) with 1) genetics of gene expression studies of CAD-relevant tissues in humans, 2) metabolic and signaling pathways from public databases, and 3) data-driven, tissue-specific gene networks from a multitude of human and mouse experiments. We not only detected CAD-associated gene networks of lipid metabolism, coagulation, immunity, and additional networks with no clear functional annotation, but also revealed key driver genes for each CAD network based on the topology of the gene regulatory networks. In particular, we found a gene network involved in antigen processing to be strongly associated with CAD. The key driver genes of this network included glyoxalase I (GLO1) and peptidylprolyl isomerase I (PPIL1), which we verified as regulatory by siRNA experiments in human aortic endothelial cells. Our results suggest genetic influences on a diverse set of both known and novel biological processes that contribute to CAD risk. The key driver genes for these networks highlight potential novel targets for further mechanistic studies and therapeutic interventions.

Systems Genetics Analysis of Genome-Wide Association Study Reveals Novel Associations Between Key Biological Processes and Coronary Artery Disease.

OBJECTIVE: Genome-wide association studies have identified multiple genetic variants affecting the risk of coronary artery disease (CAD). However, individually these explain only a small fraction of the heritability of CAD and for most, the causal biological mechanisms remain unclear. We sought to obtain further insights into potential causal processes of CAD by integrating large-scale GWA data with expertly curated databases of core human pathways and functional networks. APPROACHES AND RESULTS: Using pathways (gene sets) from Reactome, we carried out a 2-stage gene set enrichment analysis strategy. From a meta-analyzed discovery cohort of 7 CAD genome-wide association study data sets (9889 cases/11 089 controls), nominally significant gene sets were tested for replication in a meta-analysis of 9 additional studies (15 502 cases/55 730 controls) from the Coronary ARtery DIsease Genome wide Replication and Meta-analysis (CARDIoGRAM) Consortium. A total of 32 of 639 Reactome pathways tested showed convincing association with CAD (replication P<0.05). These pathways resided in 9 of 21 core biological processes represented in Reactome, and included pathways relevant to extracellular matrix (ECM) integrity, innate immunity, axon guidance, and signaling by PDRF (platelet-derived growth factor), NOTCH, and the transforming growth factor-ß/SMAD receptor complex. Many of these pathways had strengths of association comparable to those observed in lipid transport pathways. Network analysis of unique genes within the replicated pathways further revealed several interconnected functional and topologically interacting modules representing novel associations (eg, semaphoring-regulated axonal guidance pathway) besides confirming known processes (lipid metabolism). The connectivity in the observed networks was statistically significant compared with random networks (P<0.001). Network centrality analysis (degree and betweenness) further identified genes (eg, NCAM1, FYN, FURIN, etc) likely to play critical roles in the maintenance and functioning of several of the replicated pathways. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide novel insights into how genetic variation, interpreted in the context of biological processes and functional interactions among genes, may help define the genetic architecture of CAD.

Hundreds of variants clustered in genomic loci and biological pathways affect human height.

Most common human traits and diseases have a polygenic pattern of inheritance: DNA sequence variants at many genetic loci influence the phenotype. Genome-wide association (GWA) studies have identified more than 600 variants associated with human traits, but these typically explain small fractions of phenotypic variation, raising questions about the use of further studies. Here, using 183,727 individuals, we show that hundreds of genetic variants, in at least 180 loci, influence adult height, a highly heritable and classic polygenic trait. The large number of loci reveals patterns with important implications for genetic studies of common human diseases and traits. First, the 180 loci are not random, but instead are enriched for genes that are connected in biological pathways (P = 0.016) and that underlie skeletal growth defects (P < 0.001). Second, the likely causal gene is often located near the most strongly associated variant: in 13 of 21 loci containing a known skeletal growth gene, that gene was closest to the associated variant. Third, at least 19 loci have multiple independently associated variants, suggesting that allelic heterogeneity is a frequent feature of polygenic traits, that comprehensive explorations of already-discovered loci should discover additional variants and that an appreciable fraction of associated loci may have been identified. Fourth, associated variants are enriched for likely functional effects on genes, being over-represented among variants that alter amino-acid structure of proteins and expression levels of nearby genes. Our data explain approximately 10% of the phenotypic variation in height, and we estimate that unidentified common variants of similar effect sizes would increase this figure to approximately 16% of phenotypic variation (approximately 20% of heritable variation). Although additional approaches are needed to dissect the genetic architecture of polygenic human traits fully, our findings indicate that GWA studies can identify large numbers of loci that implicate biologically relevant genes and pathways.

Identification of novel type 2 diabetes candidate genes involved in the crosstalk between the mitochondrial and the insulin signaling systems.

Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) is a highly prevalent chronic metabolic disease with strong co-morbidity with obesity and cardiovascular diseases. There is growing evidence supporting the notion that a crosstalk between mitochondria and the insulin signaling cascade could be involved in the etiology of T2D and insulin resistance. In this study we investigated the molecular basis of this crosstalk by using systems biology approaches. We combined, filtered, and interrogated different types of functional interaction data, such as direct protein-protein interactions, co-expression analyses, and metabolic and signaling dependencies. As a result, we constructed the mitochondria-insulin (MITIN) network, which highlights 286 genes as candidate functional linkers between these two systems. The results of internal gene expression analysis of three independent experimental models of mitochondria and insulin signaling perturbations further support the connecting roles of these genes. In addition, we further assessed whether these genes are involved in the etiology of T2D using the genome-wide association study meta-analysis from the DIAGRAM consortium, involving 8,130 T2D cases and 38,987 controls. We found modest enrichment of genes associated with T2D amongst our linker genes (p = 0.0549), including three already validated T2D SNPs and 15 additional SNPs, which, when combined, were collectively associated to increased fasting glucose levels according to MAGIC genome wide meta-analysis (p = 8.12×10(-5)). This study highlights the potential of combining systems biology, experimental, and genome-wide association data mining for identifying novel genes and related variants that increase vulnerability to complex diseases.

Genetic and environmental risk factors in congenital heart disease functionally converge in protein networks driving heart development.

Congenital heart disease (CHD) occurs in ∼1% of newborns. CHD arises from many distinct etiologies, ranging from genetic or genomic variation to exposure to teratogens, which elicit diverse cell and molecular responses during cardiac development. To systematically explore the relationships between CHD risk factors and responses, we compiled and integrated comprehensive datasets from studies of CHD in humans and model organisms. We examined two alternative models of potential functional relationships between genes in these datasets: direct convergence, in which CHD risk factors significantly and directly impact the same genes and molecules and functional convergence, in which risk factors significantly impact different molecules that participate in a discrete heart development network. We observed no evidence for direct convergence. In contrast, we show that CHD risk factors functionally converge in protein networks driving the development of specific anatomical structures (e.g., outflow tract, ventricular septum, and atrial septum) that are malformed by CHD. This integrative analysis of CHD risk factors and responses suggests a complex pattern of functional interactions between genomic variation and environmental exposures that modulate critical biological systems during heart development.

Machine Learning-Derived Baseline Visual Field Patterns Predict Future Glaucoma Onset in the Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study.

Purpose: The Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study (OHTS) identified risk factors for primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) in patients with ocular hypertension, including pattern standard deviation (PSD). Archetypal analysis, an unsupervised machine learning method, may offer a more interpretable approach to risk stratification by identifying patterns in baseline visual fields (VFs). Methods: There were 3272 eyes available in the OHTS. Archetypal analysis was applied using 24-2 baseline VFs, and model selection was performed with cross-validation. Decomposition coefficients for archetypes (ATs) were calculated. A penalized Cox proportional hazards model was implemented to select discriminative ATs. The AT model was compared to the OHTS model. Associations were identified between ATs with both POAG onset and VF progression, defined by mean deviation change per year. Results: We selected 8494 baseline VFs. Optimal AT count was 19. The highest prevalence ATs were AT9, AT11, and AT7. The AT-based prediction model had a C-index of 0.75 for POAG onset. Multivariable models demonstrated that a one-interquartile range increase in the AT5 (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.14; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.04-1.25), AT8 (HR = 1.22; 95% CI, 1.09-1.37), AT15 (HR = 1.26; 95% CI, 1.12-1.41), and AT17 (HR = 1.17; 95% CI, 1.03-1.31) coefficients conferred increased risk of POAG onset. AT5, AT10, and AT14 were significantly associated with rapid VF progression. In a subgroup analysis by high-risk ATs (>95th percentile or <75th percentile coefficients), PSD lost significance as a predictor of POAG in the low-risk group. Conclusions: Baseline VFs, prior to detectable glaucomatous damage, contain occult patterns representing early changes that may increase the risk of POAG onset and VF progression in patients with ocular hypertension. The relationship between PSD and POAG is modified by the presence of high-risk patterns at baseline. An AT-based prediction model for POAG may provide more interpretable glaucoma-specific information in a clinical setting.

Independent Effects of Blood Pressure on Intraocular Pressure and Retinal Ganglion Cell Degeneration: A Mendelian Randomization Study.

Purpose: To investigate the causal effect of elevated blood pressure on primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) and POAG endophenotypes. Methods: Two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) was performed to investigate the causal effect of elevated systolic blood pressure (SBP) (N = 757,601) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (N = 757,601) on intraocular pressure (IOP) (N = 139,555), macular retinal nerve fiber layer (mRNFL) thickness (N = 33,129), ganglion cell complex (GCC) thickness (N = 33,129), vertical cup-to-disc ratio (VCDR) (N = 111,724), and POAG liability (Ncases = 16,677, Ncontrols = 199,580). The primary analysis was conducted using the inverse-variance weighted approach. Sensitivity analyses were performed to investigate robustness to horizontal pleiotropy, winner's curse, and collider bias. Multivariable MR was performed to investigate whether any effect of blood pressure on retinal ganglion cell degeneration was mediated through increased IOP. Results: Increased genetically predicted SBP and DBP associated with an increase in IOP (0.17 mm Hg [95% CI = 0.11 to 0.24] per 10 mm Hg higher SBP, P = 5.18 × 10-7, and 0.17 mm Hg [95% CI = 0.05 to 0.28 mm Hg] per 10 mm Hg higher DBP, P = 0.004). Increased genetically predicted SBP associated with a thinner GCC (0.04 µm [95% CI = -0.07 to -0.01 µm], P = 0.018) and a thinner mRNFL (0.04 µm [95% CI = -0.07 to -0.01 µm], P = 0.004), an effect that arises independently of IOP according to our mediation analysis. Neither SBP nor DBP associated with VCDR or POAG liability. Conclusions: These findings support a causal effect of elevated blood pressure on retinal ganglion cell degeneration that does not require intermediary changes in IOP. Targeted blood pressure control may help preserve vision by lowering IOP and, independently, by preventing retinal ganglion cell degeneration, including in individuals with a normal IOP.

Polygenic Risk Scores for Glaucoma Onset in the Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study.

Importance: Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is a highly heritable disease, with 127 identified risk loci to date. Polygenic risk score (PRS) may provide a clinically useful measure of aggregate genetic burden and improve patient risk stratification. Objective: To assess whether a PRS improves prediction of POAG onset in patients with ocular hypertension. Design, Setting, and Participants: This was a post hoc analysis of the Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study. Data were collected from 22 US sites with a mean (SD) follow-up of 14.0 (6.9) years. A total of 1636 participants were followed up from February 1994 to December 2008; 1077 participants were enrolled in an ancillary genetics study, of which 1009 met criteria for this analysis. PRS was calculated using summary statistics from the largest cross-ancestry POAG meta-analysis, with weights trained using 8 813 496 variants from 449 186 cross-ancestry participants in the UK Biobank. Data were analyzed from July 2022 to December 2023. Exposures: From February 1994 to June 2002, participants were randomized to either topical intraocular pressure-lowering medication or close observation. After June 2002, both groups received medication. Main Outcomes and Measures: Outcome measures were hazard ratios for POAG onset. Concordance index and time-dependent areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve were used to compare the predictive performance of multivariable Cox proportional hazards models. Results: Of 1009 included participants, 562 (55.7%) were female, and the mean (SD) age was 55.9 (9.3) years. The mean (SD) PRS was significantly higher for 350 POAG converters (0.24 [0.95]) compared with 659 nonconverters (-0.12 [1.00]) (P < .001). POAG risk increased 1.36% (95% CI, 1.08-1.64) with each higher PRS decile, with conversion ranging from 9.52% (95% CI, 7.09-11.95) in the lowest PRS decile to 21.81% (95% CI, 19.37-24.25) in the highest decile. Comparison of low-risk and high-risk PRS tertiles showed a 2.0-fold increase in 20-year POAG risk for participants of European and African ancestries. In the subgroup randomized to delayed treatment, each increase in PRS decile was associated with a 0.52-year (95% CI, 0.01-1.03) decrease in age at diagnosis (P = .047). No significant linear association between PRS and age at POAG diagnosis was present in the early treatment group. Prediction models significantly improved with the addition of PRS as a covariate (C index = 0.77) compared with the Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study baseline model (C index = 0.75) (P < .001). Each 1-SD higher PRS conferred a mean hazard ratio of 1.25 (95% CI, 1.13-1.44) for POAG onset. Conclusions and Relevance: Higher PRS was associated with increased risk for POAG in patients with ocular hypertension. The inclusion of a PRS improved the prediction of POAG onset. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00000125.

Use of Diagnostic Codes for Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma Polygenic Risk Score Construction in Electronic Health Record-Linked Biobanks.

PURPOSE: Polygenic risk scores (PRSs) likely predict risk and prognosis of glaucoma. We compared the PRS performance for primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG), defined using International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes vs manual medical record review. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. METHODS: We identified POAG cases in the Mount Sinai BioMe and Mass General Brigham (MGB) biobanks using ICD codes. We confirmed POAG based on optical coherence tomograms and visual fields. In a separate 5% sample, the absence of POAG was confirmed with intraocular pressure and cup-disc ratio criteria. We used genotype data and either self-reported glaucoma diagnoses or ICD-10 codes for glaucoma diagnoses from the UK Biobank and the lassosum method to compute a genome-wide POAG PRS. We compared the area under the curve (AUC) for POAG prediction based on ICD codes vs medical records. RESULTS: We reviewed 804 of 996 BioMe and 367 of 1006 MGB ICD-identified cases. In BioMe and MGB, respectively, positive predictive value was 53% and 55%; negative predictive value was 96% and 97%; sensitivity was 97% and 97%; and specificity was 44% and 53%. Adjusted PRS AUCs for POAG using ICD codes vs manual record review in BioMe were not statistically different (P ≥.21) by ancestry: 0.77 vs 0.75 for African, 0.80 vs 0.80 for Hispanic, and 0.81 vs 0.81 for European. Results were similar in MGB (P ≥.18): 0.72 vs 0.80 for African, 0.83 vs 0.86 for Hispanic, and 0.74 vs 0.73 for European. CONCLUSIONS: A POAG PRS performed similarly using either manual review or ICD codes in 2 electronic health record-linked biobanks; manual assessment of glaucoma status might not be necessary for some PRS studies. However, caution should be exercised when using ICD codes for glaucoma diagnosis given their low specificity (44%-53%) for manually confirmed cases of glaucoma.