Abbreviated Resonant Frequency Training to Augment Heart Rate Variability and Enhance On-Demand Emotional Regulation in Elite Sport Support Staff.

Support and management staff in elite sport experience work-related stress and emotional disturbance to a similar extent as athletes (Fletcher and Wagstaff 2009). The resonant frequency breathing technique (Lehrer et al. 2000) can inhibit autonomic changes associated with stressful situations or events and as such provides a potential emotional regulation tool. The present study utilised five practitioner-led heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback sessions and home practice via mobile applications to train support and management staff (n = 9) in resonant frequency breathing techniques. Although baseline HRV did not change from pre to post training, participants increased total HRV (i.e., SDNN; p = .006), parasympathetic HRV (i.e., RMSSD; p = .028) and HRV reflective of baroreflex function (i.e., low frequency power; p = .018) while accurately performing resonant frequency breathing without a breath pacer. Post-intervention questionnaire data revealed an increase (p = .032) in habitual use of somatic strategies for emotional regulation, and social validation data suggested that the technique enhanced emotional regulation at home, work and during international competition. HRV biofeedback and the resonant frequency technique provided an on-demand emotional regulation technique for elite sport support and management staff.

Between-Match Variability of Peak Power Output and Creatine Kinase Responses to Soccer Match-Play.

Post-match assessments of peak power output (PPO) during countermovement jumps and creatine kinase (CK) concentrations are common markers of recovery status in soccer players. Yet, the impact of soccer match-play on recovery in the 48 hours after competition is unclear, and the between-match variability of these responses has not been examined. Fourteen reserve team players from an English Premier League club were examined over 1-4 matches per player. Creatine kinase and PPO were measured before, 24, and 48 hours after each match. Data were analyzed with within-subjects linear mixed models. Compared with the prematch baseline, PPO was 237 ± 170 W and 98 ± 168 W lower at 24 and 48 hours, respectively (p ≤ 0.005) and CK was elevated (24 hours: 334.8 ± 107.2 µ·L(-1), 48 hours: 156.9 ± 121.0 µ·L(-1); both p ≤ 0.001) after match-play. These responses were consistent across the different matches and playing positions (p > 0.05). Within-subject correlations between PPO and CK were significant (r = -0.558; p ≤ 0.005). The between-match variability of PPO was 10.9, 11.0, and 9.9%, respectively at baseline, 24 and 48 hours, whereas for CK, the variability was 41.7, 30.0, and 34.3%, respectively. These findings highlight that more than 48 hours are needed to restore metabolic and performance perturbations after soccer match-play, and that CK demonstrates greater between-match variability than PPO. Such information is likely to be of interest to those responsible for the design of training schedules in the days after a match and sports scientists whose responsibilities include the monitoring of recovery status in soccer players.

Neuromuscular function, hormonal, and mood responses to a professional rugby union match.

We examined the recovery time-course of neuromuscular function (NMF), the testosterone and cortisol hormonal milieu, and mood for 60 hours after a competitive match in professional rugby union players (n = 14). Thirty-six hours prematch (19:30 hours kick-off), baseline saliva samples (testosterone, cortisol, and testosterone to cortisol [T/C] ratio), countermovement jump performances (peak power output [PPO]), and mood disruption (Brief Assessment of Mood Questionnaire) were collected and was repeated at 12, 36, and 60 hours postmatch. Peak power output decreased below baseline at 12 hours (baseline 6,100 ± 565 W vs. 12 h 5,680 ± 589 W; p = 0.004) and 36 hours (5,761 ± 639 W; p < 0.001) but had recovered at 60 hours (5,950 ± 505 W; p = 0.151). Cortisol concentrations increased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 0.40 ± 0.09 µg·dl-1 vs. 12 h 0.60 ± 0.20 µg·dl-1; p = 0.004) and 36 hours (0.60 ± 0.20 µg·dl-1; p = 0.027) but were similar at 60 hours postmatch. Testosterone concentrations decreased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 214 ± 84 pg·ml-1 vs. 12 h 151 ± 56 pg·ml-1; p = 0.023) and 36 hours (173 ± 71 pg·ml-1; p = 0.016) but were similar at 60 hours postmatch. The T/C ratio decreased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 551 ± 219 vs. 12 h 266 ± 123; p = 0.001) and 36 hours (310 ± 148; p = 0.027) before returning to baseline at 60 hours postmatch. Mood disturbance increased at 12 hours (p = 0.031) before returning to baseline at 36 and 60 hours postmatch. There were no relationships between changes in PPO, testosterone, cortisol, T/C ratio, and mood. In conclusion, postmatch changes in NMF, salivary hormones, and mood disturbance were identified in professional rugby union players. Players and coaches can expect reduced NMF and hormonal disruption for 36 hours before recovering at 60 hours postmatch, with mood recovered by 36 hours postmatch. Knowledge of these recovery time-courses may prove useful for player training program design and postmatch recovery strategies.

Observation interventions as a means to manipulate collective efficacy in groups.

The purpose of this multistudy investigation was to examine observation as an intervention for the manipulation of individual collective efficacy beliefs. Study 1 compared the effects of positive, neutral, and negative video footage of practice trials from an obstacle course task on collective efficacy beliefs in assigned groups. The content of the observation intervention (i.e., positive, neutral, and negative video footage) significantly influenced the direction of change in collective efficacy (p < .05). Study 2 assessed the influence of content familiarity (own team/sport vs. unfamiliar team/sport) on individual collective efficacy perceptions when observing positive footage of competitive basketball performance. Collective efficacy significantly increased for both the familiar and unfamiliar conditions postintervention, with the largest increase for the familiar condition (p < .05). The studies support the use of observation as an intervention to enhance individual perceptions of collective efficacy in group-based activities. The findings suggest that observations of any group displaying positive group characteristics are likely to increase collective efficacy beliefs; however, observation of one's own team leads to the greatest increases.

The Psychology of Athletic Tapering in Sport: A Scoping Review.

Taper is a common training strategy used to reduce fatigue and enhance athletic performance. However, currently, no review has summarised what psychological research has been conducted examining taper, what this research shows and what future research needs to be undertaken to extend the field. Consequently, a scoping review was conducted with three aims: (a) to determine the characteristics of psychological research examining taper, (b) to summarise psychological research collected during taper with adult athletes and coaches, and (c) to identify gaps in psychological research examining taper. Forty-eight articles were identified following an exhaustive search strategy and charted following scoping review guidelines. Results showed most research was quantitative, used a longitudinal design, was conducted in swimming, triathlon, cycling or across multiple sports, and used a university-, regional- or national-level male athlete sample. Eight themes were developed to summarise the research: Mood, Perception of Effort, Perceived Fatigue and Wellness, Recovery-Stress, Taper as a Stressor, Stress Tolerance, Psychological Preparation and Cognitive Functioning. Additionally, four research recommendations were identified: (a) conducting exploratory research that examines the impact taper has on athletes' and coaches' competition preparation and stress experience, (b) asking more advanced psychological questions and conducting multi-disciplinary research, (c) including a more diverse participant sample in studies and (d) examining the impact of psychological interventions during taper. Overall, this scoping review has highlighted the limited research examining the psychology of taper and the need for focused research that asks more complex questions across diverse populations.

The effects of combined action observation and motor imagery on corticospinal excitability and movement outcomes: Two meta-analyses.

Motor simulation interventions involving motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) have received considerable interest in the behavioral sciences. A growing body of research has focused on using AO and MI simultaneously, termed 'combined action observation and motor imagery' (AOMI). The current paper includes two meta-analyses that quantify changes in corticospinal excitability and motor skill performance for AOMI compared to AO, MI and control conditions. Specifically, the first meta-analysis collated and synthesized existing motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude data from transcranial magnetic stimulation studies and the second meta-analysis collated and synthesized existing movement outcome data from behavioral studies. AOMI had a positive effect compared to control and AO but not MI conditions for both MEP amplitudes and movement outcomes. No methodological factors moderated the effects of AOMI, indicating a robust effect of AOMI across the two outcome variables. The results of the meta-analyses are discussed in relation to existing literature on motor simulation and skill acquisition, before providing viable directions for future research on this topic.

Relationships between force-time characteristics of the isometric midthigh pull and dynamic performance in professional rugby league players.

There is considerable conflict within the literature regarding the relevance of isometric testing for the assessment of neuromuscular function within dynamic sports. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between isometric measures of force development and dynamic performance. Thirty-nine professional rugby league players participated in this study. Forty-eight hours after trial familiarization, participants performed a maximal isometric midthigh pull, with ∼120-130° bend at the knee, countermovement jump (CMJ), and a 10-m sprint. Force-time data were processed for peak force (PF), force at 100 milliseconds (F100ms), and peak rate of force development (PRFD). Analysis was carried out using Pearson's product moment correlation with significance set at p < 0.05. The PF was not related to dynamic performance; however, when expressed relative to body weight, it was significantly correlated with both 10-m time and CMJ height (r = -0.37 and 0.45, respectively, p < 0.05). The F100ms was inversely related to 10-m time (r = -0.54, p < 0.01); moreover, when expressed relative to body weight, it was significantly related to both 10-m time and CMJ height (r = -0.68 and 0.43, p < 0.01). In addition, significant correlations were found between PRFD and 10-m time (r = -0.66, p < 0.01) and CMJ height (r = 0.387, p < 0.01). In conclusion, this study provides evidence that measures of maximal strength and explosiveness from isometric force-time curves are related to jump and sprint acceleration performance in professional rugby league players.

Predicting performance at the group-phase and knockout-phase of the 2015 Rugby World Cup.

The primary aim of this paper was to produce a model that predicts outcome in the group-phase of the 2015 Rugby World Cup and to determine the relevance and importance of performance indicators (PIs) that are significant in predicting outcome. A secondary aim investigated whether this model accurately predicted match outcome in the knockout-phase of the competition. Data was the PIs from the 40 group-phase games of the 2015 RWC. Given the binary outcome (win/lose), a random forest classification model was built using the data sets. The outcome of the knockout-phase was predicted using this model and accuracy of prediction of the model from the group-phase. The model indicated that thirteen PIs were significant in predicting match outcome in the group-phase and provided accurate prediction of match outcome in the knockout-phase. These PIs were tackle-ratio, clean breaks, average carry, lineouts won, penalties conceded, missed tackles, lineouts won in the opposition 22, defenders beaten, metres carried, kicks from hand, lineout success, penalties in opposition 22 m and scrums won. For the group-phase matches tackle ratio, clean breaks and average carry were accurate standalone predictors of match outcome and respectively predicted 75%, 70% and 73% of match outcomes. The model based on the group-phase predicted correctly 7 from 8 (87.5%) knockout-phase matches. In the knockout-phase clean breaks predicted 7 from 8 outcomes, whilst tackle ratio and average carry predicted 6 from 8 outcomes.

There Is an "Eye" in Team: Exploring the Interplay Between Emotion, Gaze Behavior, and Collective Efficacy in Team Sport Settings.

Little is understood about the attentional mechanisms that lead to perceptions of collective efficacy. This paper presents two studies that address this lack of understanding. Study one examined participant's (N = 59) attentional processes relating to positive, neutral, or negative emotional facial photographs, when instructed to select their "most confident" or "least confident" team. Eye gaze metrics of first fixation duration (FFD), fixation duration (FD), and fixation count (FC) were measured alongside individual perceptions of collective efficacy and emotional valence of the teams selected. Participants had shorter FFD, longer FD, and more FC on positive faces when instructed to select their most confident team (p < 0.05). Collective efficacy and emotional valence were significantly greater when participants selected their most confident team (p < 0.05). Study two explored the influence of video content familiarity of team-based observation interventions on attentional processes and collective efficacy in interdependent team-sport athletes (N = 34). When participants were exposed to familiar (own team/sport) and unfamiliar (unknown team/sport) team-based performance video, eye tracking data revealed similar gaze behaviors for the two conditions in terms of areas of interest. However, collective efficacy increased most for the familiar condition. Study one results indicate that the emotional expressions of team members influence both where and for how long we look at potential team members, and that conspecifics' emotional expression impacts on our perceptions of collective efficacy. For Study two, given the apparent greater increase in collective efficacy for the familiar condition, the similar attentional processes evident for familiar and unfamiliar team footage suggests that differences in meaning of the observed content dictates collective efficacy perceptions. Across both studies, the findings indicate the importance of positive emotional vicarious experiences when using team-based observation interventions to improve collective efficacy in teams.

Descriptive conversion of performance indicators in rugby union.

OBJECTIVES: The primary aim of this study was to examine whether accuracy of rugby union match prediction outcomes differed dependent on the method of data analysis (i.e., isolated vs. descriptively converted or relative data). A secondary aim was to then use the most appropriate method to investigate the performance indicators (PI's) most relevant to match outcome. METHODS: Data was 16 PI's from 127 matches across the 2016-17 English Premiership rugby season. Given the binary outcome (win/lose), a random forest classification model was built using these data sets. Predictive ability of the models was further assessed by predicting outcomes from data sets of 72 matches across the 2017-18 season. RESULTS: The relative data model attained a balanced prediction rate of 80% (95% CI - 75-85%) for 2016-17 data, whereas the isolated data model only achieved 64% (95% CI - 58-70%). In addition, the relative data model correctly predicted 76% (95% CI - 68-84%) of the 2017-18 data, compared with 70% (95% CI - 63-77%) for the isolated data model. From the relative data model, 10 PI's had significant relationships with game outcome; kicks from hand, clean breaks, average carry distance, penalties conceded when the opposition have the ball, turnovers conceded, total metres carried, defenders beaten, ratio of tackles missed to tackles made, total missed tackles, and turnovers won. CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes of Premiership rugby matches are better predicted when relative data sets are utilised. Basic open-field abilities based around an effective kicking game, ball carrying abilities, and not conceding penalties when the opposition are in possession are the most relevant predictors of success.

Development and Initial Validation of a Rock Climbing Craving Questionnaire (RCCQ).

Conceptual similarities have been identified between experiences of extreme sports athletes and those with drug and behavioral addictions. Evidence suggests rock climbers experience craving and other withdrawal-like states when abstinent from their sport. However, no studies have attempted to quantitatively measure the craving experienced by participants of any extreme sports. Such a measure could allow a greater understanding of the craving experienced by extreme sports athletes and a comparison of these across sports (e.g., surfing) and activities (e.g., drug-use). Therefore, using validated craving measures as a template, the aim of the two studies outlined here was to design and preliminarily validate a subjective multidimensional inventory that could be used to measure craving in the sports of rock-climbing and mountaineering ("RCCQ"). The aim of the first study was to investigate the factor structure of a preliminary measure of craving. Climbers (n = 407) completed the RCCQ. A 3-factor model explained 53.65% of the total variance in item scores. All three factors comprised five items each, which were conceptually labeled as "urge to climb" "negative reinforcement" and "positive reinforcement." The aim of the second study was to validate the 15-item 3-factor RCCQ resulting from Study 1 using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Climbers (n = 254) completed the questionnaire under a climbing-related cue condition or a cue-neutral condition. CFA revealed a good model fit and that all individual parameter estimates were significant and standard errors were within reasonable limits once item 13 was removed from Factor 1. Study 1 supports the multi-dimensional nature of rock climbing craving and shows parallels with substance-related craving in reflecting intention and positive (desire) and negative (withdrawal) reinforcement. Study 2 confirms this factor structure and gives initial validation to the measure with evidence that these factors are sensitive to cue exposure. Given the preliminary nature of the data, any practical implications are tentative. However, if as shown here, craving for climbing (and potentially other extreme sports) is similar to that experienced by drug-users and addicts, there is the potential that climbing and other extreme sports could be used as a replacement therapy for drug users.

Relationships between physical qualities and key performance indicators during match-play in senior international rugby union players.

The use of physical tests to profile physical capabilities, and provide training direction to athletes is common practice. Likewise, in professional team sports, notational analysis codes the key contributions of each player during competition. Limited studies have however investigated relationships between physical capabilities and key performance indicators (KPIs) of rugby union match-play. Elite professional players, categorised as forwards (n = 15) or backs (n = 14), from an international rugby union squad (n = 29) undertook assessments of isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), bilateral and unilateral countermovement jumps (CMJ) and drop jumps (DJ; from 40 and 20 cm, respectively), and assessment of acceleration (10 m), a 5 m weighted sled drive, and a Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (Yo-Yo IRTL1). Game statistics of the same players from 92 matches (~23 matches per player) during the 2014-15 season were analysed for effort and performance-based metrics. For forwards, Yo-Yo IRTL1 correlated significantly with; number of tackles made (r = 0.717), first three players at a ruck in both attack (r = 0.568) and defence (r = 0.581), number of effective rucks (r = 0.630), total possessions (r = 0.522), passes made (r = 0.651), percentage of carries over the gainline (r = 0.610), effective ruck success (r = 0.600), tackle success (r = 0.540), and the number of turnovers made (r = 0.518). Drop jump performance in forwards was associated with; the number of clean breaks (r = 0.558), dominant collisions (r = 0.589), and offloads (r = 0.594). For backs, the sled-drive test correlated with; number of carries (r = -0.751), first three players at an attacking ruck (r = -0.613), effective attacking rucks (r = -0.584), number of dominant collisions (r = -0.792) and offloads (r = -0.814). Likewise, for backs, IMTP peak force was related to; the number of possessions (r = 0.793), passes made (r = 0.792), effective attacking ruck percentage (r = 0.628), and the number of offloads (r = 0.621) whilst relative peak force correlated with; the percentage of carries over the gainline (r = 0.533), percent tackle success (r = 0.603) and effective attacking ruck percentage (r = 0.584). Regression analyses highlighted that only a small number of variables (i.e., carries, tackles, attacking and defensive first three at ruck) returned practically achievable changes (<20%) in physical qualities. In spite of this, and while leaving scope identification of further physical and/or performance predictors, greater strength, power and intermittent running performance were positively related to match-derived KPIs during competition. This may provide a basis for better integrating the strategies used by physical and technical performance-focused coaching staff to improve key performance indicators, and thus match performance, of rugby union players.

Assessing worst case scenarios in movement demands derived from global positioning systems during international rugby union matches: Rolling averages versus fixed length epochs.

The assessment of competitive movement demands in team sports has traditionally relied upon global positioning system (GPS) analyses presented as fixed-time epochs (e.g., 5-40 min). More recently, presenting game data as a rolling average has become prevalent due to concerns over a loss of sampling resolution associated with the windowing of data over fixed periods. Accordingly, this study compared rolling average (ROLL) and fixed-time (FIXED) epochs for quantifying the peak movement demands of international rugby union match-play as a function of playing position. Elite players from three different squads (n = 119) were monitored using 10 Hz GPS during 36 matches played in the 2014-2017 seasons. Players categorised broadly as forwards and backs, and then by positional sub-group (FR: front row, SR: second row, BR: back row, HB: half back, MF: midfield, B3: back three) were monitored during match-play for peak values of high-speed running (>5 m·s-1; HSR) and relative distance covered (m·min-1) over 60-300 s using two types of sample-epoch (ROLL, FIXED). Irrespective of the method used, as the epoch length increased, values for the intensity of running actions decreased (e.g., For the backs using the ROLL method, distance covered decreased from 177.4 ± 20.6 m·min-1 in the 60 s epoch to 107.5 ± 13.3 m·min-1 for the 300 s epoch). For the team as a whole, and irrespective of position, estimates of fixed effects indicated significant between-method differences across all time-points for both relative distance covered and HSR. Movement demands were underestimated consistently by FIXED versus ROLL with differences being most pronounced using 60 s epochs (95% CI HSR: -6.05 to -4.70 m·min-1, 95% CI distance: -18.45 to -16.43 m·min-1). For all HSR time epochs except one, all backs groups increased more (p < 0.01) from FIXED to ROLL than the forward groups. Linear mixed modelling of ROLL data highlighted that for HSR (except 60 s epoch), SR was the only group not significantly different to FR. For relative distance covered all other position groups were greater than the FR (p < 0.05). The FIXED method underestimated both relative distance (~11%) and HSR values (up to ~20%) compared to the ROLL method. These differences were exaggerated for the HSR variable in the backs position who covered the greatest HSR distance; highlighting important consideration for those implementing the FIXED method of analysis. The data provides coaches with a worst-case scenario reference on the running demands required for periods of 60-300 s in length. This information offers novel insight into game demands and can be used to inform the design of training games to increase specificity of preparation for the most demanding phases of matches.

The relationship between imagery type and collective efficacy in elite and non elite athletes.

This study investigated the relationship between imagery function and individual perceptions of collective efficacy as a function of skill level. Elite (n = 70) and non elite (n = 71) athletes from a number of interactive team sports completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) and the Collective Efficacy Inventory (CEI). Multiple hierarchical regression analysis was then used to examine which SIQ sub-scales predicted individual perceptions of collective efficacy. For the elite sample, Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M) imagery accounted for approximately 17% of the variance in collective efficacy scores. No significant predictions were observed in the non elite sample. The findings suggest MG-M imagery as a potential technique to improve levels of collective efficacy although competitive level may moderate the effectiveness of such interventions. Key pointsAs imagery is an individual intervention, an examination of individual perceptions of collective efficacy was most appropriate.Elite athletes who use more MG-M imagery also have higher individual perceptions of collective efficacy.For non-elite athletes, none of the imagery functions tested predicted individual perceptions of collective efficacy.Performance accomplishments provided by MG-M imagery may increase individual perceptions of collective efficacy.Future research should investigate further the effects of imagery intervention programmes on collective efficacy beliefs.

Measuring recovery: An adapted Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM+) compared to biochemical and power output alterations.

OBJECTIVES: Biochemical (e.g. creatine kinase (CK)) and neuromuscular (e.g. peak power output (PPO)) markers of recovery are expensive and require specialist equipment. Perceptual measures are an effective alternative, yet most validated scales are too long for daily use. DESIGN: This study utilises a longitudinal multi-level design to test an adapted Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM+), with four extra items and a 100mm visual analogue scale to measure recovery. METHODS: Elite under-21 academy soccer players (N=11) were monitored across five games with data (BAM+, CK and PPO) collected for each game at 24h pre, 24h and 48h post-match. Match activity data for each participant was also collected using GPS monitors on players. RESULTS: BAM+, CK and PPO had significant (p<.05) linear and quadratic growth curves across time and games that matched the known time reports of fatigue and recovery. Multi-level linear modelling (MLM) with random intercepts for 'participant' and 'game' indicated only CK significantly contributed to the variance of BAM+ scores (p<.05). Significant correlations (p<.01) were found between changes in BAM+ scores from baseline at 24 and 48h post-match for total distance covered per minute, high intensity distance covered per minute, and total number of sprints per minute. CONCLUSIONS: Visual and inferential results indicate that the BAM+ appears effective for monitoring longitudinal recovery cycles in elite level athletes. Future research is needed to confirm both the scales reliability and validity.

Atypical Mycobacterium furunculosis occurring after pedicures.

Mycobacterium fortuitum complex are rapidly-growing nontuberculous mycobacteria found ubiquitously in the environment including, water, soil, dust, and biofilms. M fortuitum has been reported to cause skin and soft-tissue infections in association with nail salon footbath use during pedicures. Four cases of M fortuitum complex furunculosis are reported that occurred after pedicures in the Cincinnati, Ohio/Northern Kentucky area. Dermatologists and clinicians should consider mycobacterial infections from the M fortuitum complex when patients present with nonhealing furuncles on the lower legs and should inquire about recent pedicures. Early recognition and institution of appropriate therapy are critical. Public health measures should be explored to protect against such infections, given the recent popularity of the nail care industry.

Movement Demands of Elite U20 International Rugby Union Players.

The purpose of this study was to quantify movement demands of elite international age grade (U20) rugby union players during competitive tournament match play. Forty elite professional players from an U20 international performance squad were monitored using 10 Hz global positioning systems (GPS) during 15 international tournament matches during the 2014/15 and 2015/16 seasons. Data on distances, velocities, accelerations, decelerations, high metabolic load (HML) distance and efforts, and number of sprints were derived. Data files from players who played over 60 min (n = 161) were separated firstly into Forwards and Backs, and more specifically into six positional groups; FR--Front Row (prop & hooker), SR--Second Row, BR--Back Row (Flankers & No.8), HB--Half Backs (scrum half & outside half), MF--Midfield (centres), B3--Back Three (wings & full back) for match analysis. Analysis revealed significant differences between forwards and backs positions. Backs scored higher on all variables measured with the exception of number of moderate accelerations, decelerations (no difference). The centres covered the greatest total distance with the front row covering the least (6.51 ± 0.71 vs 4.97 ± 0.75 km, p < 0.001). The front row also covered the least high speed running (HSR) distance compared to the back three (211.6 ± 112.7 vs 728.4 ± 150.2 m, p < 0.001) who covered the most HSR distance, affirming that backs cover greater distances but forwards have greater contact loads. These findings highlight for the first time differences in the movement characteristics of elite age grade rugby union players specific to positional roles.

Movement Demands of Elite Under-20s and Senior International Rugby Union Players.

This study compared the movement demands of elite international Under-20 age grade (U20s) and senior international rugby union players during competitive tournament match play. Forty elite professional players from an U20 and 27 elite professional senior players from international performance squads were monitored using 10Hz global positioning systems (GPS) during 15 (U20s) and 8 (senior) international tournament matches during the 2014 and 2015 seasons. Data on distances, velocities, accelerations, decelerations, high metabolic load (HML) distance and efforts, and number of sprints were derived. Data files from players who played over 60 min (n = 258) were separated firstly into Forwards and Backs, and more specifically into six positional groups; FR-Front Row (prop & hooker), SR-Second Row, BR-Back Row (Flankers & No.8), HB-Half Backs (scrum half & outside half), MF-Midfield (centres), B3 -Back Three (wings & full back) for match analysis. Linear mixed models revealed significant differences between U20 and senior teams in both the forwards and backs. In the forwards the seniors covered greater HML distance (736.4 ± 280.3 vs 701.3 ± 198.7m, p = 0.01) and severe decelerations (2.38 ± 2.2 vs 2.28 ± 1.65, p = 0.05) compared to the U20s, but performed less relative HSR (3.1 ± 1.6 vs 3.2 ± 1.5, p < 0.01), moderate (19.4 ± 10.5 vs 23.6 ± 10.5, p = 0.01) and high accelerations (2.2 ± 1.9 vs 4.3 ± 2.7, p < 0.01) and sprint•min-1 (0.11 ± 0.06 vs 0.11 ± 0.05, p < 0.01). Senior backs covered a greater relative distance (73.3 ± 8.1 vs 69.1 ± 7.6 m•min-1, p < 0.01), greater High Metabolic Load (HML) distance (1138.0 ± 233.5 vs 1060.4 ± 218.1m, p < 0.01), HML efforts (112.7 ± 22.2 vs 98.8 ± 21.7, p < 0.01) and heavy decelerations (9.9 ± 4.3 vs 9.5 ± 4.4, p = 0.04) than the U20s backs. However, the U20s backs performed more relative HSR (7.3 ± 2.1 vs 7.2 ± 2.1, p <0.01) and sprint•min-1 (0.26 ± 0.07 vs 0.25 ± 0.07, p < 0.01). Further investigation highlighted differences between the 6 positional groups of the teams. The positional groups that differed the most on the variables measured were the FR and MF groups, with the U20s FR having higher outputs on HSR, moderate & high accelerations, moderate, high & severe decelerations, HML distance, HML efforts, and sprints•min-1. For the MF group the senior players produced greater values for relative distance covered, HSR, moderate decelerations, HML distance and sprint•min-1. The BR position group was most similar with the only differences seen on heavy accelerations (U20s higher) and moderate decelerations (seniors higher). Findings demonstrate that U20s internationals appear to be an adequate 'stepping stone' for preparing players for movement characteristics found senior International rugby, however, the current study highlight for the first time that certain positional groups may require more time to be able to match the movement demands required at a higher playing level than others. Conditioning staff must also bear in mind that the U20s players whilst maintaining or improving match movement capabilities may require to gain substantial mass in some positions to match their senior counterparts.

Collective efficacy at the Rugby World Cup 2015--The role of imagery and observation.

The Rugby World Cup in 2015 will present each competing team with unique psychological challenges not usually encountered in normal international fixtures. In the "pressure-pot" environment of the tournament, teams that have the strongest sense of collective efficacy will most likely perform to their best and respond positively to the outside stressors (e.g., media interest, public expectations). In this review, the importance of collective efficacy to team performance at the World Cup in terms of team resiliency and minimising process losses is discussed. In addition, the relationship between collective efficacy and other psychological factors such as team cohesion is highlighted. From a practical perspective, an introduction to interventions to develop collective efficacy is provided. In particular, the neuroscience evidence for the use of imagery and observation interventions to improve individual collective efficacy perceptions is highlighted. It is emphasised how these interventions are particularly suited to international teams who compete together sporadically. Finally, specific recommendations are made such that practitioners might be able to implement these strategies with their teams before the World Cup.