Toxicity and Binding Studies of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac, Cry1F, Cry1C, and Cry2A Proteins in the Soybean Pests Anticarsia gemmatalis and Chrysodeixis (Pseudoplusia) includens.

Anticarsia gemmatalis (velvetbean caterpillar) and Chrysodeixis includens (soybean looper, formerly named Pseudoplusia includens) are two important defoliating insects of soybeans. Both lepidopteran pests are controlled mainly with synthetic insecticides. Alternative control strategies, such as biopesticides based on the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins or transgenic plants expressing Bt toxins, can be used and are increasingly being adopted. Studies on the insect susceptibilities and modes of action of the different Bt toxins are crucial to determine management strategies to control the pests and to delay outbreaks of insect resistance. In the present study, the susceptibilities of both soybean pests to the Bt toxins Cry1Ac, Cry1Fa, Cry1Ca, and Cry2Aa have been investigated. Bioassays performed in first-instar larvae showed that both insects are susceptible to all these toxins. Competition-binding studies carried out with Cry1Ac and Cry1Fa 125-iodine labeled proteins demonstrated the presence of specific binding sites for both of them on the midgut brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) of both A. gemmatalis and C. includens Competition-binding experiments and specific-binding inhibition studies performed with selected sugars and lectins indicated that Cry1Ac and Cry1Fa share some, but not all, binding sites in the midguts of both insects. Also, the Cry1Ac- or Cry1Fa-binding sites were not shared with Cry1Ca or Cry2Aa in either soybean pest. This study contributes to the knowledge of Bt toxicity and midgut toxin binding sites in A. gemmatalis and C. includens and sheds light on the cross-resistance potential of Cry1Ac, Cry1Fa, Cry1Ca, and Cry2Aa Bt proteins as candidate proteins for Bt-pyramided crops.IMPORTANCE In the present study, the toxicity and the mode of action of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins Cry1Ac, Cry1Fa, Cry1Ca, and Cry2Aa in Anticarsia gemmatalis and Chrysodeixis includens (important defoliating pests of soybeans) have been investigated. These studies are crucial for determining management strategies for pest control. Bioassays showed that both insects were susceptible to the toxins. Competition-binding studies demonstrated the presence of Cry1Fa- and Cry1Ac-specific binding sites in the midguts of both pests. These results, together with the results from binding inhibition studies performed with sugars and lectins, indicated that Cry1Ac and Cry1Fa share some, but not all, binding sites, and that they were not shared with Cry1Ca or Cry2Aa in either soybean pest. This study contributes to the knowledge of Bt toxicity in A. gemmatalis and C. includens and sheds light on the cross-resistance potential of Cry1Ac, Cry1Fa, Cry1Ca, and Cry2Aa Bt proteins as candidate proteins for Bt-pyramided crops.

Field-Evolved Mode 1 Resistance of the Fall Armyworm to Transgenic Cry1Fa-Expressing Corn Associated with Reduced Cry1Fa Toxin Binding and Midgut Alkaline Phosphatase Expression.

Insecticidal protein genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are expressed by transgenic Bt crops (Bt crops) for effective and environmentally safe pest control. The development of resistance to these insecticidal proteins is considered the most serious threat to the sustainability of Bt crops. Resistance in fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) populations from Puerto Rico to transgenic corn producing the Cry1Fa insecticidal protein resulted, for the first time in the United States, in practical resistance, and Bt corn was withdrawn from the local market. In this study, we used a field-collected Cry1Fa corn-resistant strain (456) of S. frugiperda to identify the mechanism responsible for field-evolved resistance. Binding assays detected reduced Cry1Fa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac but not Cry1Ca toxin binding to midgut brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from the larvae of strain 456 compared to that from the larvae of a susceptible (Ben) strain. This binding phenotype is descriptive of the mode 1 type of resistance to Bt toxins. A comparison of the transcript levels for putative Cry1 toxin receptor genes identified a significant downregulation (>90%) of a membrane-bound alkaline phosphatase (ALP), which translated to reduced ALP protein levels and a 75% reduction in ALP activity in BBMV from 456 compared to that of Ben larvae. We cloned and heterologously expressed this ALP from susceptible S. frugiperda larvae and demonstrated that it specifically binds with Cry1Fa toxin. This study provides a thorough mechanistic description of field-evolved resistance to a transgenic Bt crop and supports an association between resistance and reduced Cry1Fa toxin binding and levels of a putative Cry1Fa toxin receptor, ALP, in the midguts of S. frugiperda larvae.

Insecticidal toxin complex proteins from Xenorhabdus nematophilus: structure and pore formation.

Toxin complexes from Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus spp. bacteria represent novel insecticidal proteins. We purified a native toxin complex (toxin complex 1) from Xenorhabdus nematophilus. The toxin complex is composed of three different proteins, XptA2, XptB1, and XptC1, representing products from class A, B, and C toxin complex genes, respectively. We showed that recombinant XptA2 and co-produced recombinant XptB1 and XptC1 bind together with a 4:1:1 stoichiometry. XptA2 forms a tetramer of ∼1,120 kDa that bound to solubilized insect brush border membranes and induced pore formation in black lipid membranes. Co-expressed XptB1 and XptC1 form a tight 1:1 binary complex where XptC1 is C-terminally truncated, resulting in a 77-kDa protein. The ∼30-kDa C-terminally cleaved portion of XptC1 apparently only loosely associates with this binary complex. XptA2 had only modest oral toxicity against lepidopteran insects but as a complex with co-produced XptB1 and XptC1 had high levels of insecticidal activity. Addition of co-expressed class B (TcdB2) and class C (TccC3) proteins from Photorhabdus luminescens to the Xenorhabdus XptA2 protein resulted in formation of a hybrid toxin complex protein with the same 4:1:1 stoichiometry as the native Xenorhabdus toxin complex 1. This hybrid toxin complex, like the native toxin complex, was highly active against insects.

Laboratory performance and pharmacokinetics of the benzoylphenylurea noviflumuron in eastern subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae).

A benzoylphenylurea insect growth regulator with the common name noviflumuron was evaluated for use as a baiting toxicant against the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). Noviflumuron demonstrated significantly greater potency and faster speed of action compared with the commercial standard hexaflumuron. In addition, noviflumuron was not a feeding deterrent on filter paper at concentrations of up to 10,000 ppm. The rates of uptake, clearance, and insect-to-insect transfer of [14C] noviflumuron were measured in R. flavipes in laboratory assays and compared with those previously reported for [14C]hexaflumuron. Under a continuous exposure regime, the uptake profile for noviflumuron was similar to that for hexaflumuron, although the time period of maximal uptake was shorter for noviflumuron. Noviflumuron was cleared from termites in a first order process with a half-life of approximately 29 d, whereas the half-life of hexaflumuron was much shorter (8-9 d). Noviflumuron was efficiently transferred from treated to untreated termites by trophallaxis via kinetics similar to those reported for hexaflumuron; however, the systemic dose of noviflumuron required to result in toxicity of R. flavipes was found to be at least two- to three-fold less than that of hexaflumuron. The faster activity of noviflumuron compared with hexaflumuron in R. flavipes can be at least partially explained by the combination of slower clearance and greater intrinsic activity.

Targeting of the actin cytoskeleton by insecticidal toxins from Photorhabdus luminescens.

Photorhabdus luminescens produces several types of protein toxins, which are essential for participation in a trilateral symbiosis with nematodes and insects. The nematodes, carrying the bacteria, invade insect larvae and release the bacteria, which kill the insects with their toxins. Recently, the molecular mechanisms of the toxin complexes PTC3 and PTC5 have been elucidated. The biologically active components of the toxin complexes are ADP-ribosyltransferases, which modify actin and Rho GTPases, respectively. The actions of the toxins are described and compared with other bacterial protein toxins acting on the cytoskeleton.

Photorhabdus luminescens toxins ADP-ribosylate actin and RhoA to force actin clustering.

The bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens is mutualistically associated with entomopathogenetic nematodes. These nematodes invade insect larvae and release the bacteria from their intestine, which kills the insects through the action of toxin complexes. We elucidated the mode of action of two of these insecticidal toxins from P. luminescens. We identified the biologically active components TccC3 and TccC5 as adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-ribosyltransferases, which modify unusual amino acids. TccC3 ADP-ribosylated threonine-148 of actin, resulting in actin polymerization. TccC5 ADP-ribosylated Rho guanosine triphosphatase proteins at glutamine-61 and glutamine-63, inducing their activation. The concerted action of both toxins inhibited phagocytosis of target insect cells and induced extensive intracellular polymerization and clustering of actin. Several human pathogenic bacteria produce related toxins.

Ronald Estabrook's early guidance of a postdoctoral fellow concerning the intricacies of steroid metabolism by cytochromes P450.

Ronald Estabrook made his initial impact studying cytochrome P450 by demonstrating the oxidative metabolism function of this unique class of enzymes, which had an unusual spectral peak at 450 nm when reduced and in the presence of carbon monoxide. Utilizing a photochemical action spectrum, he demonstrated that a cytochrome P450 was responsible for steroid 21 hydroxylation catalyzed by microsomes prepared from adrenal cortex tissue. As a young postdoctoral student, I was given the unique opportunity to learn from a true pioneer in this field. Ron had a surprisingly small laboratory at that time that allowed me to closely interact with a great scientist to learn about the important role cytochrome P450 proteins play in a wide variety of different organisms catalyzing oxidative metabolism reactions essential to life and to provide organisms, with the means to defend against xenobiotics.