Microalgal luxury uptake of phosphorus in waste stabilization ponds - frequency of occurrence and high performing genera.

Microalgae commonly found in waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) are able to accumulate elevated phosphorus levels within their cells in a process known as luxury uptake. However, there are few studies focused on luxury uptake in full scale WSPs. In order to comprehensively quantify the occurrence of this phenomenon, eight different WSP sites comprising seven primary facultative, six maturation and two high rate algal ponds (HRAPs) spread over several climatic regions were monitored over four seasons. Of the 15 ponds studied, 13 of these exhibited elevated levels of biomass phosphorus content at some point; however, the occurrence in HRAPs was limited. More than half of the samples tested had elevated phosphorus contents and this occurred in all climatic zones surveyed. The phosphorus content of the biomass was significantly correlated to decreasing rainfall and increasing total dissolved phosphorus. Microscopic analysis revealed that nearly all the 17 microalgal and five cyanobacterial genera identified performed luxury uptake, but at varying frequencies. This is the first time that the genera of algae responsible for luxury uptake in full scale WSPs has been studied. Chlamydomonas/Cryptomonas, Micractinium/Microcystis and Scenedesmus were the only microalgal genera found to both commonly occur in WSPs and consistently perform luxury uptake.

Effect of whey storage on biogas produced by co-digestion of sewage sludge and whey.

Biogas production from municipal anaerobic digesters could potentially be boosted via co-digestion with organic wastes such as whey. The challenge is that whey production is seasonal. This research examined the effect of storing whey at ambient temperature on: (1) whey composition; (2) biogas production from co-digestion of the stored whey with municipal primary sludge. Whey storage resulted in acidification with formation of acetate, propionate and butyrate and a 9% reduction in total chemical oxygen demand (COD) over the 9-month trial. A control digester fed with primary sludge produced 0.18-0.23 m3 CH4/kgCOD(added). Co-digestion of fresh whey and sludge increased biogas production and the methane contribution from the whey was 0.29 m3CH4/kgCOD(added). When the fresh whey was substituted with stored whey, methane production by the whey remained at 0.29 m3CH4/kgCOD(added). The ability to store whey at ambient temperature and allow co-digestion year round will significantly improve the economics of biogas production from whey.

Enhanced biogas production using cow manure to stabilize co-digestion of whey and primary sludge.

Increasing biogas production from municipal anaerobic digesters via additional loading with industrial/agricultural wastes offers a low-cost, sustainable energy generation option of significant untapped potential. In this work, bench-top reactors were used to mimic a full-scale primary sludge digester operating at an organic loading rate (OLR) of 2.4 kg COD/m3 d and a 20 d hydraulic retention time (HRT). Co-digestion of whey with primary sludge was sustained at a loading rate of 3.2 kg COD/m3 d (17 d HRT) and boosted gas production to 151% compared to primary sludge digestion alone. Addition of chemical alkalinity enabled co-digestion of whey with primary sludge to be maintained at an elevated OLR of 6.4 kg COD/m3 d (11 d HRT) with gas production increased to 208%. However, when the chemical addition was simply replaced by cow manure, stable operation was maintained at OLRs of 5.2-6.9 kg COD/m3 d (11-14 d HRT) with gas production boosted up to 268%.

Luxury uptake of phosphorus by microalgae in full-scale waste stabilisation ponds.

Biological phosphorus removal was studied in two full-scale waste stabilisation ponds (WSP). Luxury uptake by microalgae was confirmed to occur and in one pond the biomass contained almost four times the phosphorus required by microalgae for normal metabolism. However, the phosphorus content within the biomass was variable. This finding means that assumptions made in prior publications on modelling of phosphorus removal in WSP are questionable. While fluctuations in microalgal growth causes variation in many water quality parameters, this further variation in luxury uptake explains the high degree of variability in phosphorus removal commonly reported in the literature. To achieve effective biological phosphorus removal high levels of both luxury uptake and microalgal concentration are needed. The findings of this work show that while high levels of these parameters did occur at times in the WSP monitored, they did not occur simultaneously. This is explained because accumulated phosphorus is subsequently consumed during rapid growth of biomass resulting in a high biomass concentration with a low phosphorus content. Previous laboratory research has allowed a number of key considerations to be proposed to optimise both luxury uptake and biomass concentration. Now that is has been shown that high levels of biomass concentration and luxury uptake can occur in the field it may be possible to redesign WSP to optimise these parameters.

Phosphate release from waste stabilisation pond sludge: significance and fate of polyphosphate.

Net phosphorus removal from waste stabilisation pond (WSP) systems is governed by the rate of phosphorus incorporation into the sludge layer and the rate of phosphorus release from this sludge back to the overlying wastewater. Luxury uptake of phosphorus by microalgae has been shown to occur under WSP conditions in the laboratory; however, the significance of this mechanism and the fate of polyphosphate contained in the settled solids have not previously been investigated. In this work the analysis of sludge samples from three WSP showed that up to 71% of the total phosphorus in the sludge was in the form of polyphosphate. This indicates that polyphosphate accumulation could potentially be an important mechanism for phosphorus sequestration in WSP and challenges the common view that chemical precipitation is the predominant phosphorus removal mechanism in these systems. The release of phosphate from WSP sludge samples was monitored in the laboratory. The samples from two different pond systems had release rates in the order of 4.3 microgP/gTSS.d. However, the third sample which was collected during an algal bloom had a release rate of 12.4 microgP/gTSS.d. Phosphate release from fresh microalgal sludge grown under laboratory conditions was also studied and was shown to have a release rate of 160 microgP/gTSS.d. Analysis of polyphosphate during the experiments on laboratory grown microalgal sludge showed that polyphosphate was indeed degraded resulting in phosphate release. Interestingly, after the initial release phase phosphorus was assimilated by the biomass and some polyphosphate was reformed. It is likely that this is due to bacterial growth in the sludge.

Chemical techniques for pretreating and regenerating active slag filters for improved phosphorus removal.

Active slag filters are an emerging technology for removing phosphorus (P) from wastewaters. Recent research revealed that adsorption onto Fe oxides/oxyhydroxides at near-neutral pH and oxidizing Eh is the key mechanism of P removal by melter slag filters. Currently, filter lifespan is limited by available adsorption sites. This study examined whether the performance and longevity of active filters could be improved via chemical treatment to create additional reactive sites as well as regenerate exhausted ones. Fresh original melter slag as well as slag from an exhausted full-scale filter was tested. Chemical reagents that could manipulate the pH/Eh of the slag granule surfaces and potentially activate them for further P removal were used, namely hydrochloric acid (HCI), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4). Waste stabilization pond effluent was then applied to the treated slag to assess the effectiveness of the treatments at improving P removal. Fresh slag treated with Na2S204 and HCl, respectively, retained 1.9 and 1.4 times more P from the effluent than the untreated fresh slag. These reagents were even more effective at regenerating the exhausted slag, increasing total retained P by a factor of 13 and six, respectively, compared with untreated slag. Sodium hydroxide was ineffective at increasing P removal. The higher P retention by the 'treated exhausted slag' compared with the 'treated fresh media' indicates that adsorption sites on melter slag filters become increasingly reactive with time. This research is the first study to provide evidence that P retention by active slag filters can be increased by both (1) chemical pre treatment and (2) chemical post-treatment once their P removal is exhausted, thereby potentially transforming them from a single use system to a more viable, reusable treatment technology.

Active slag filters-simple and sustainable phosphorus removal from wastewater using steel industry byproduct.

Active filtration, where effluent is passed through a reactive substrate such as steel slag, offers a simple and cost-effective option for removing phosphorus (P) from effluent. This work summarises a series of studies that focused on the world's only full-scale active slag filter operated through to exhaustion. The filter achieved 75% P-removal during its first 5 years, reaching a retention capacity of 1.23 g P/kg slag but then its performance sharply declined. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, and chemical extractions revealed that P sequestration was primarily achieved via adsorption onto iron (Fe) oxyhydroxides on the slag's surface. It was concluded that batch equilibrium tests, whose use has been repeatedly proposed in the literature, cannot be used as an accurate predictor of filter adsorption capacity because Fe oxyhydroxides form via chemical weathering in the field, and laboratory tests don't account for this. Research into how chemical conditions affect slag's P retention capacity demonstrated that near-neutral pH and high redox are optimal for Fe oxyhydroxide stability and overall filter performance. However, as Fe oxyhydroxide sites fill up, removal capacity becomes exhausted. Attempts to regenerate P removal efficiency using physical techniques proved ineffective contrary to dogma in the literature. Based on the newly-developed understanding of the mechanisms of P removal, chemical regeneration techniques were investigated and were shown to strip large quantities of P from filter adsorption sites leading to a regenerated P removal efficiency. This raises the prospect of developing a breakthrough technology that can repeatedly remove and recover P from effluent.

Optimization of a novel enzyme treatment process for early-stage processing of sheepskins.

An enzyme treatment process for early-stage processing of sheepskins has been previously reported by the Leather and Shoe Research Association of New Zealand (LASRA) as an alternative to current industry operations. The newly developed process had marked benefits over conventional processing in terms of a lowered energy usage (73%), processing time (47%) as well as water use (49%), but had been developed as a "proof of principle''. The objective of this work was to develop the process further to a stage ready for adoption by industry. Mass balancing was used to investigate potential modifications for the process based on the understanding developed from a detailed analysis of preliminary design trials. Results showed that a configuration utilising a 2 stage counter-current system for the washing stages and segregation and recycling of enzyme float prior to dilution in the neutralization stage was a significant improvement. Benefits over conventional processing include a reduction of residual TDS by 50% at the washing stages and 70% savings on water use overall. Benefits over the un-optimized LASRA process are reduction of solids in product after enzyme treatment and neutralization stages by 30%, additional water savings of 21%, as well as 10% savings of enzyme usage.

Assessment of physical techniques to regenerate active slag filters removing phosphorus from wastewater.

Active slag filters are an emerging technology for removing phosphorus (P) from wastewater. Currently, the lifespan of these filters is limited by their available reactive sites. An increasing number of researchers suggest that drying active filters can renew their P removal capacity, although there has only been one research paper that has achieved regeneration. Hence, this study investigated techniques to regenerate the P removal efficiency of exhausted melter slag filter media which had successfully treated effluent for 5 years in the field before becoming inactive. Several techniques were performed to expose fresh surface sites on the slag, including: (1) drying; (2) agitation; and (3) crushing of the slag granules. Crushing resulted in the best regeneration of P removal efficiency by the slag, however, after just 2 months the renewed P removal efficiency of the crushed slag fell back to a similar level to that exhibited by exhausted slag. Furthermore, none of the other physical methods caused long-term rejuvenation of the exhausted slag to remove P from effluent. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that none of the regeneration techniques exposed substantial new phosphorus adsorption sites on the slag granules. These findings therefore challenge the validity of the existing dogma that active slag filters can be effectively regenerated by simple physical treatments, indicating further research is required to optimise active filter performance.

Suitability of adsorption isotherms for predicting the retention capacity of active slag filters removing phosphorus from wastewater.

Active slag filters are an emerging technology for removing phosphorus (P) from wastewater. A number of researchers have suggested that adsorption isotherms are a useful tool for predicting P retention capacity. However, to date the appropriateness of using isotherms for slag filter design remains unverified due to the absence of benchmark data from a full-scale, field filter operated to exhaustion. This investigation compared the isotherm-predicted P retention capacity of a melter slag with the P adsorption capacity determined from a full-scale, melter slag filter which had reached exhaustion after five years of successfully removing P from waste stabilization pond effluent. Results from the standard laboratory batch test showed that P adsorption correlated more strongly with the Freundlich Isotherm (R(2)=0.97, P<0.01) than the Langmuir Isotherm, a similar finding to previous studies. However, at a P concentration of 10 mg/L, typical of domestic effluent, the Freundlich equation predicted a retention capacity of 0.014 gP/kg slag; markedly lower than the 1.23 gP/kg slag adsorbed by the field filter. Clearly, the result generated by the isotherm bears no resemblance to actual field capacity. Scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed porous, reactive secondary minerals on the slag granule surfaces from the field filter which were likely created by weathering. This slow weathering effect, which generates substantial new adsorption sites, is not accounted for by adsorption isotherms rendering them ineffective in slag filter design.

Solar-powered aeration and disinfection, anaerobic co-digestion, biological CO2 scrubbing and biofuel production: the energy and carbon management opportunities of waste stabilisation ponds.

Waste stabilisation pond (WSP) technology offers some important advantages and interesting possibilities when viewed in the light of sustainable energy and carbon management. Pond systems stand out as having significant advantages due to simple construction; low (or zero) operating energy requirements; and the potential for bio-energy generation. Conventional WSP requires little or no electrical energy for aerobic treatment as a result of algal photosynthesis. Sunlight enables WSP to disinfect wastewaters very effectively without the need for any chemicals or electricity consumption and their associated CO(2) emissions. The energy and carbon emission savings gained over electromechanical treatment systems are immense. Furthermore, because algal photosynthesis consumes CO(2), WSP can be utilised as CO(2) scrubbers. The environmental and financial benefits of pond technology broaden further when considering the low-cost, energy production opportunities of anaerobic ponds and the potential of algae as a biofuel. As we assess future best practice in wastewater treatment technology, perhaps one of the greatest needs is an improved consideration of the carbon footprint and the implications of future increases in the cost of electricity and the value of biogas.

Influence of CO2 scrubbing from biogas on the treatment performance of a high rate algal pond.

Biogas produced by anaerobic treatment of wastewater can be collected and used for power generation. However, the biogas may require scrubbing to prevent corrosion by H2S and to improve engine efficiency by reducing the CO2 content. HRAP can be used to scrub biogas during the daytime when they are carbon-limited and have high pH. This study investigates the influence of the carbon dioxide addition from biogas scrubbing on high rate algal pond wastewater treatment performance (in terms of BOD, NH4-N, DRP and E. coli removal) and algal production (growth and species composition). Batch culture experiments were conducted in laboratory microcosms (2 L) and outside mesocosms (20 L). Results indicate that CO2 addition and reduced culture pH increased algal production and nutrient assimilation, decreased high pH mediated nutrient removal processes (phosphate precipitation and ammonia volatilisation), but had little influence on the ability of the culture to remove filtered BODs. Disinfection, as indicated by E.coli removal; was reduced, however, further research on virus removal, which is not affected by culture pH, is required. These preliminary findings indicate the potential to scrub C02 from biogas using high rate pond water without decreasing the effectiveness of wastewater treatment and enabling increased recovery of wastewater nutrients as algal biomass.

CFD (computational fluid dynamics) modelling of baffles for optimizing tropical waste stabilization pond systems.

CFD modelling of the incorporation of two baffles equally spaced along the longitudinal axis of the pond and with a length equal to 70% of the pond breadth, indicated a potential improvement in the removal of E. coli in a 4-day secondary facultative pond at 25degrees C from 5 x 10(6) per 100 ml in the effluent from a 1-day anaerobic pond to 4 x 10(4) per 100 ml; the reduction in an un-baffled pond was an order of magnitude less effective. The addition of a similarly baffled 4-day primary maturation pond reduced the effluent E. coli count to 340 per 100 ml; the reduction in an un-baffled series was two orders of magnitude less effective. Well designed baffles thus have considerable potential for reducing pond area requirements and hence costs in the hot tropics. These very promising results highlight the need for field studies on baffled pond systems to validate (or allow calibration) of the CFD model used in this study.

'Active' filters for upgrading phosphorus removal from pond systems.

This paper investigates limestone and iron slag filters as an upgrade option for phosphorus removal from wastewater treatment ponds. A review of 'active' filter technology and the results from laboratory and field research using packed columns of the different media is presented. It is shown that both limestone and iron slag can remove phosphorus but highlights that different types of limestone give markedly different performance. Filter performance appears to be improved by increasing temperature and by the presence of algae, presumably because of its tendency to elevate pH. Performance is related to hydraulic retention time (HRT), but this relationship is not linear, particularly at low HRTs. Importantly for future research, the results from field-testing with pond effluent show significant differences compared to those obtained when using a synthetic feed in the laboratory. For the iron slag filter, higher performance was observed in the field (72% in field vs. 27% in laboratory, at a 12 hour-HRT), while the opposite was observed for the limestone (64% in laboratory vs. 18% in field, at a 12-hour HRT).

Development of guidelines for improved hydraulic design of waste stabilisation ponds.

Pond hydraulic behaviour is influenced by the inlet/outlet configuration, baffles and wind, but design information relating to these factors is still very limited. This paper reviews the development of "Guidelines for the Improved Hydraulic Design of Waste Stabilisation Ponds" and summarises some of the key findings and recommendations. This work was based on review of previous research, laboratory experimentation, field studies and mathematical modelling using computational fluid dynamics. The inlet design can have a significant influence on the flow regime in a pond. Poorly considered positioning of the inlet and the outlet can create hydraulic short-circuiting problems. As an example of the nature of the work undertaken in this project, the use of a small horizontal inlet pipe was compared against a vertical inlet design. A practical method of assessing the relative significance of wind versus inlet power input was presented. The application of this analysis may allow engineers to size inlet pipes to help control the flow patterns in ponds for efficient performance. Extensive testing has been undertaken on a wide range of baffle configurations. An example of this research showed how short stub baffles could provide similar improvements to longer "traditional" baffle designs, potentially offering significant savings in construction costs. For traditional baffle designs a minimum of two baffles is recommended. For the pond modelled in this work, it was found that any more than four baffles gave only marginal improvements.

Integration of coliform decay within a CFD (computational fluid dynamic) model of a waste stabilisation pond.

CFD mathematical modelling offers the potential to predict the actual flow pattern in a pond rather than generalising its mixing and mass transport as either an ideal flow reactor or, in the case of the non-ideal flow reactor, as a single dispersion number. However, perhaps the greatest benefit that CFD offers over the previous approaches is its ability to directly account for physical influences on the pond hydraulics such as the addition of baffles for example. In addition to solving the equations of fluid flow, CFD modelling also allows incorporation of other equations. The next logical development is, therefore, the integration of a reaction model within its solution domain. This potential has been recognised by several researchers, but to date no such work has been published. The primary aim of this paper was to present a CFD model of a field pond that incorporates the first order decay equation for coliforms. Experimental monitoring of the field pond gave an average effluent concentration of 3,710 f.c./100 mL, while the CFD model predicted 4,600 f.c./100 mL. Considering the pond provides an order of magnitude decrease in faecal coliform concentration, the integrated CFD model has clearly predicted the treatment efficiency very well. The secondary aim of this paper was to demonstrate the potential application of this technique. A typical pond was designed and modelled along with two variations incorporating two baffles and six baffles respectively. As is typically found in pond systems, the standard design suffered from severe short-circuiting with the model predicting a value of 6.2 x 10(6) f.c./100 mL at the outlet. The simulations of the baffled designs illustrate how treatment efficiency was improved by reducing the short-circuiting through the pond. The model predicted values of 6.0 x 10(3) f.c./100 mL for the 2-baffle design and 5.7 x 10(2) f.c./100 mL for the 6-baffle design.

Investigating why recycling gravity harvested algae increases harvestability and productivity in high rate algal ponds.

It has previously been shown that recycling gravity harvested algae promotes Pediastrum boryanum dominance and improves harvestability and biomass production in pilot-scale High Rate Algal Ponds (HRAPs) treating domestic wastewater. In order to confirm the reproducibility of these findings and investigate the mechanisms responsible, this study utilized twelve 20 L outdoor HRAP mesocosms operated with and without algal recycling. It then compared the recycling of separated solid and liquid components of the harvested biomass against un-separated biomass. The work confirmed that algal recycling promoted P. boryanum dominance, improved 1 h-settleability by >20% and increased biomass productivity by >25% compared with controls that had no recycling. With regard to the improved harvestability, of particular interest was that recycling the liquid fraction alone caused a similar improvement in settleability as recycling the solid fraction. This may be due to the presence of extracellular polymeric substances in the liquid fraction. While there are many possible mechanisms that could account for the increased productivity with algal recycling, all but two were systematically eliminated: (i) the mean cell residence time was extended thereby increasing the algal concentration and more fully utilizing the incident sunlight and, (ii) the relative proportions of algal growth stages (which have different specific growth rates) was changed, resulting in a net increase in the overall growth rate of the culture.

Enhancing biomass energy yield from pilot-scale high rate algal ponds with recycling.

This paper investigates the effect of recycling on biomass energy yield in High Rate Algal Ponds (HRAPs). Two 8 m(3) pilot-scale HRAPs treating primary settled sewage were operated in parallel and monitored over a 2-year period. Volatile suspended solids were measured from both HRAPs and their gravity settlers to determine biomass productivity and harvest efficiency. The energy content of the biomass was also measured. Multiplying biomass productivity and harvest efficiency gives the 'harvestable biomass productivity' and multiplying this by the energy content defines the actual 'biomass energy yield'. In Year 1, algal recycling was implemented in one of the ponds (HRAPr) and improved harvestable biomass productivity by 58% compared with the control (HRAPc) without recycling (HRAPr: 9.2 g/m(2)/d; HRAPc: 5.8 g/m(2)/d). The energy content of the biomass grown in HRAPr, which was dominated by Pediastrun boryanum, was 25% higher than the control HRAPc which contained a mixed culture of 4-5 different algae (HRAPr: 21.5 kJ/g; HRAPc: 18.6 kJ/g). In Year 2, HRAPc was then seeded with the biomass harvested from the P. boryanum dominated HRAPr. This had the effect of shifting algal dominance from 89% Dictyosphaerium sp. (which is poorly-settleable) to over 90% P. boryanum in 5 months. Operation of this pond was then switched to recycling its own harvested biomass, which maintained P. boryanum dominance for the rest of Year 2. This result confirms, for the first time in the literature, that species control is possible for similarly sized co-occurring algal colonies in outdoor HRAP by algal recycling. With regard to the overall improvement in biomass energy yield, which is a critical parameter in the context of algal cultivation for biofuels, the combined improvements that recycling triggered in biomass productivity, harvest efficiency and energy content enhanced the harvested biomass energy yield by 66% (HRAPr: 195 kJ/m(2)/day; HRAPc: 118 kJ/m(2)/day).

Wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds for biofuel production.

While research and development of algal biofuels are currently receiving much interest and funding, they are still not commercially viable at today's fossil fuel prices. However, a niche opportunity may exist where algae are grown as a by-product of high rate algal ponds (HRAPs) operated for wastewater treatment. In addition to significantly better economics, algal biofuel production from wastewater treatment HRAPs has a much smaller environmental footprint compared to commercial algal production HRAPs which consume freshwater and fertilisers. In this paper the critical parameters that limit algal cultivation, production and harvest are reviewed and practical options that may enhance the net harvestable algal production from wastewater treatment HRAPs including CO(2) addition, species control, control of grazers and parasites and bioflocculation are discussed.

Recycling algae to improve species control and harvest efficiency from a high rate algal pond.

This paper investigates the influence of recycling gravity harvested algae on species dominance and harvest efficiency in wastewater treatment High Rate Algal Ponds (HRAP). Two identical pilot-scale HRAPs were operated over one year either with (HRAP(r)) or without (HRAP(c)) harvested algal biomass recycling. Algae were harvested from the HRAP effluent in algal settling cones (ASCs) and harvest efficiency was compared to settlability in Imhoff cones five times a week. A microscopic image analysis technique was developed to determine relative algal dominance based on biovolume and was conducted once a month. Recycling of harvested algal biomass back to the HRAP(r) maintained the dominance of a single readily settleable algal species (Pediastrum sp.) at >90% over one year (compared to the control with only 53%). Increased dominance of Pediastrum sp. greatly improved the efficiency of algal harvest (annual average of >85% harvest for the HRAP(r) compared with ∼60% for the control). Imhoff cone experiments demonstrated that algal settleability was influenced by both the dominance of Pediastrum sp. and the species composition of remaining algae. Algal biomass recycling increased the average size of Pediastrum sp. colonies by 13-30% by increasing mean cell residence time. These results indicate that recycling gravity harvested algae could be a simple and effective operational strategy to maintain the dominance of readily settleable algal species, and enhance algal harvest by gravity sedimentation.