Geospatial mapping can be used to identify geographic areas and social factors associated with intentional injury as targets for prevention efforts distinct to a given community.

BACKGROUND: Geographic information systems (GIS) have proven effective in studying intentional injury in various communities; however, GIS is not implemented widely for use by Level I trauma centers in understanding patient populations. Our study of intentional injury combines the capabilities of GIS with a Level I trauma center registry to determine the spatial distribution of victims and correlated socioeconomic factors. METHODS: One thousand ninety-nine of 3,109 total incidents of intentional trauma in the trauma registry from 2005 to 2015 had sufficient street address information to be mapped in GIS. Comparison of these data, coupled with demographic data at the block group level, determined if any clustering or spatial patterns existed. Geographic information systems delivered these comparisons using several spatial statistics including kernel density, ordinary least squares test, and Moran's index. RESULTS: Kernel density analysis identified four major areas with significant clustering of incidents. The Moran's I value was 0.0318. Clustering exhibited a positive z-score and significant p value (p < 0.01). Examination of socioeconomic factors by spatial correlation with the distribution of intentional injury incidents identified three significant factors: unemployment, single-parent households, and lack of a high school degree. Tested factors did not exhibit substantial redundancy (variance inflation factor < 7.5). Nonsignificant tested factors included race, proximity to liquor stores and bars, median household income, per capita income, rate with public assistance, and population density. CONCLUSION: Spatial representation of trauma registry data using GIS effectively identifies high-risk areas for intentional injury. Analysis of local socioeconomic data identifies factors unique to those high-risk areas in the observed community. Implications of this study may include the routine use of GIS by Level I trauma centers in assessing intentional injury in a given community, the use of that data to guide the development of trauma prevention, and the assessment of other mechanisms of trauma using GIS. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiological, level IV.

Preoperative demonstration of postinflammatory syringomyelia.

Syringomyelia secondary to arachnoiditis is a rarely reported entity, which has not been described in the radiographic literature. A series of eight patients who had either postinfectious, posthemorrhagic, iatrogenic, or idiopathic arachnoiditis was examined recently with metrizamide computed tomography (CT). These patients presented with progressive neurologic deficits that could not be attributed to the level of arachnoid changes on myelography. On immediate and/or delayed CT scans, metrizamide accumulation within the central part of the cord was identified, both at and above the level of the arachnoiditis. In some patients, the cord diameter was normal. Syrinx cavities were demonstrated and shunted at surgery with subsequent partial relief or arrest of the symptoms. The mechanism of development of postinflammatory syringomyelia is discussed.

A longitudinal study of anteroposterior growth changes in the palatine rugae.

Palatine rugae have been used as internal dental cast reference points for quantification of tooth migration. Some, but not all, investigators have reported the medial rugal region to be stable or to show predictable change. The purpose of this study was to use the longitudinal data base of the Child Research Council of Denver to examine the anteroposterior stability of the medial rugal region. Dental casts of 20 females and 21 males with untreated normal Angle Class I occlusions were selected. Time intervals measured were: T1--primary teeth erupted, T2--earliest cast with permanent first molars erupted, T3--earliest cast with canines and pre-molars erupted, and T4--ages 16 to 22. Distinctive left and right anterior and posterior rugae which appeared on all four casts were identified, the medial ends marked, and the anteroposterior distances measured. The data were evaluated with the paired t test, repeated-measures ANOVA, and Tukey's multiple comparison procedure. From T1--T4, the medial rugal region increased 1.4 +/- 0.6 mm in females and 2.3 +/- 0.8 mm in males. Only two cases showed a trend toward stability. There were no significant differences by side. Significant increases in size occurred between T2 and T3 for females and males and between T3 and T4 for males. Analysis of these data indicates that the medial rugal region increases significantly in anteroposterior length, but not uniformly between the sexes across observation times. Such changes are characteristic of general craniofacial growth and suggest that the rugal region is responding to the differential growth of the underlying bone. Therefore, medial rugal landmarks appear not to be stable reference points for tooth migration research.

Hypertension-related morbidity and mortality in the southeastern United States.

Stroke mortality is higher in the Southeast compared with other regions of the United States. The prevalence of hypertension is also higher (black men = 35%, black women = 37.7%, white men = 26.5%, white women = 21.5%), and the proportion of patients whose hypertension is being controlled is poor, especially in white and black men. The prevalence of hypertension-related complications other than stroke is also higher in the Southeast. The five states with the highest death rates for congestive heart failure are all in the southern region. Of the 15 states with the highest rates of end-stage renal disease, 10 are in the Southeast. Obesity is very prevalent (24% to 28%) in the Southeast. Although Michigan tops the ranking for all states, 6 of the top 15 states are in the Southeast, as are 7 of the 10 states with the highest reported prevalence regarding no leisure-time physical activity. Similar to other areas of the United States, dietary sodium and saturated fat intake are high in the Southeast; dietary potassium intake appears to be relatively low. Other factors that may be associated with the high prevalence, poor control, and excess morbidity and mortality of hypertension-related complications in the Southeast include misperceptions of the seriousness of the problem, the severity of the hypertension, lack of adequate follow-up, reduced access to health care, the cost of treatment, and possibly, low birth weights. The Consortium of Southeastern Hypertension Control (COSEHC) is a nonprofit organization created in 1992 in response to a compelling need to improve the disproportionate hypertension-related morbidity and mortality throughout this region. The purpose of this position paper is to summarize the data that document the problem, the consequences, and possible causative factors.

Influence of F strain Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection on response of commercial layers to heat exposure.

Commercial layers were inoculated with F strain Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) and housed in either conventional chicken houses or the lower-stress environment of biological isolation units. At the end of 2 weeks, all treatment groups were placed in environmental chambers and subjected to 4 hr of heat stress (40 C with a dew point of 21 C). Rectal temperature, an indicator of response to high heat, was monitored. Rectal temperatures of F strain MG-inoculated hens housed in the conventional chicken house environment were significantly higher than those of uninoculated controls, whereas rectal temperatures of hens held in isolation units were comparable to those of their uninoculated controls.

The effect of biological isolation and a molt-inducing regimen on the recovery of Mycoplasma gallisepticum from commercial Leghorn hens.

Two trials were conducted to determine the effect of induced molt on the reisolation of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) from commercial leghorn hens that had been eyedrop-inoculated with MG at 10 weeks of age. Chickens were maintained in a conventional floored chicken house on dry litter through 100 weeks of age. At age 64 weeks, 4 days (Trial 1), and at 100 weeks (Trial 2), hens were swabbed and cultured for MG and then molted in biological isolation units. Swabs were again taken at the end of each molt. No difference was observed in the number of MG isolations between molted hens and controls that did not undergo molting. However, a significant decrease in MG isolations was observed in both trials from swabs obtained when hens were housed on dry litter floors as compared with swabs taken from the same hens after 18 days (Trial 1) or 21 days (Trial 2) of confinement in isolation units.

The effect of air velocity on broiler performance and feed and water consumption.

Two trials were conducted to determine the effect of air velocity on feed and water consumption at a constant temperature of 27 C and a daily cyclic temperature of 22-32-22 C. Air velocity over the broilers was <15 or 120 m/min. These temperature and air velocity treatments were arranged in a 2 x 2 factorial design in eight environmental chambers, with two replications of each treatment. The air velocity treatments were applied, and total feed and water consumption and daily patterns of consumption were determined for broilers from 21 to 49 d of age. Broilers exposed to the high air velocity consumed less water and more feed, gained more weight, and had an improved feed:gain ratio. The high air velocity had little effect on daily patterns of feed and water consumption. Both feed and water consumption were depressed during the peak of the daily cyclic temperature.

Research note: Mycoplasma gallisepticum isolations resulting from dry versus wet swabs.

Commercial Leghorns vaccinated with F strain Mycoplasma gallisepticum were used to determine the effect of hydration of swab material with Frey's broth media on M. gallisepticum isolation. Twenty-four hens from each of four 10,000 bird houses were randomly selected and swabbed from the choanal cleft region. Twelve birds from each house were swabbed with ethylene-oxide-sterilized, 2.4-mm diameter rayon-tipped swabs, and 12 hens were swabbed with the same type swabs wetted with sterile Frey's broth media. Results of the present study demonstrate that wetting of the swab prior to swabbing does not affect the recovery of M. gallisepticum from commercial layers.

Water consumption by broilers in high cyclic temperatures: bell versus nipple waterers.

Broilers were maintained on litter in environmental chambers to study water consumption from bell and nipple waterers. The chambers were set at high cyclic temperatures of either 24-35-24 C or 24-32-24 C daily cycles in three trials. Water consumption was recorded by computer each 30 min and calculated as a percentage of body weight. Daily water consumption from nipples was always less than from bell waterers. Water consumption by quarter-day revealed that consumption from nipples was often similar to that from bell waterers during the lowest temperatures but was less during the periods of highest temperatures. Further study revealed that water consumption from nipple waterers was related to the height of the nipples such that consumption was greater for lower nipples. The results suggest that panting broilers have difficulty drinking from high nipple waterers.

The effect of environmental temperature and body weight on growth rate and feed:gain of male broilers.

High environmental temperatures are detrimental to the growth and feed:gain of broilers. The objective of this research was to determine the effects of incremental differences in environmental temperature on growth and feed:gain. The data are needed for decisions about the profitability of energy inputs when managing the housing environment. In Trial 1, broiler chicks were reared as a group to 21 d on litter with constant lighting and with water and feed available for ad libitum consumption. They were then moved to 10 environmental chambers. Each chamber was set at a different temperature ranging from 21.1 C to 31.1 C in 1.11 C increments. Weight gain and feed:gain were determined when the broilers were 28, 35, and 42 d old. In Trials 2 and 3, broilers were placed in the environmental chambers, and weight gain and feed:gain were determined for the 42 to 49 d period. The data were analyzed statistically, and regression equations were obtained for growth and feed:gain. Equations were based on body weight and temperature, and the body weight equation was plotted as grams gain per bird per day. Feed:gain was plotted for that body weight and temperature. Body weight gain per day increased to a maximum with increasing weight and then declined. The body weight at the maximum rate of gain was inversely related to temperature. Feed:gain increased as body weight increased. Feed:gain was directly related to temperature at weights above 800 g and the effect of temperature increased as body weight increased. The data will be useful for the evaluation of various management scenarios to determine the inputs that are profitable.

Air velocity and high temperature effects on broiler performance.

Three trials, using a total of 1,320 male broilers, were conducted to study the effect of air velocity at 125 m/min on body weight gain and feed: gain. The broilers were placed on litter in pens in a wind tunnel or on litter in floor pens with conventional cross ventilation when 4 wk old. Except for air velocity, the conditions in the floor pens and the tunnel were the same. In Trials 1 and 2, only nipple waterers were used. In Trial 3, one-half of the pens on the floor and one-half of the pens in the tunnel were equipped with trough waterers; the remaining pens were equipped with nipple waterers. When compared with conventional ventilation, tunnel rearing improved body weight gain and feed:gain in all three trials. In Trial 3, waterer type did not significantly affect body weight gain or feed:gain in the tunnel. However, body weight gain and feed:gain were reduced in floor-reared birds using nipple waterers as compared with birds using trough waterers. The increased panting of the conventionally ventilated birds, as compared with the tunnel-ventilated birds, may have contributed to their decreased body weight gain and improved feed:gain. The lower body weights may occur because of the difficulty the birds experience when drinking from nipples while panting.

The effects of high-air velocity on broiler performance.

Two trials using a total of 1,484 Ross male broilers were conducted to study the effect of air velocities of 180 and 120 m/min versus still air (<15 m/min) on BW gain (BWG) and feed:gain from 3 to 7 wk of age. Broilers were raised in a common environment to 3 wk of age. The experimental facility was a closed sided house containing eight wind tunnel floor pens and six floor pens. There were two wind tunnels (four pens/tunnel) used to test air velocities of 180 or 120 m/min. At 3 wk of age, 53 birds were placed in pens on litter in each of two wind tunnels (four pens/tunnel) or on litter in floor pens (six pens) in an environmentally controlled facility. All floor pens contained 3.75 square meters of floor space, one tube feeder, and one trough waterer. The temperature regimen was a diurnal cycle of 25-30-25 C with 23 C dewpoint. Air velocities of 180 and 120 m/min had no significant effect on BWG or feed:gain during the first week (3 to 4 wk) in the tunnels as compared with the still air. However, significant improvements were noted in BWG and feed:gains for increased air velocities from 4 to 5 and 5 to 6 wk of age. During the last week (6 to 7), an air velocity of 180 m/min significantly improved BWG and feed:gain, as compared with the 120 m/min or the still air.

Effect of beak trimming on body weight and feed intake of egg-type pullets fed pellets or mash.

Pelleted and mash feed were provided in each of two trials. In the first trial, it was noted that the pullets did not eat the feed that was offered in pellet form. Type of beak trimming appeared to be involved in lowering feed intake. The second trial demonstrated that pullets with either the top beak or both beaks trimmed (block cut) approximately 2 mm from the nostril when offered pellets or mash did not eat feed in pellet form as readily as that in mash form.

Effect of environmental temperature and feeding regimen on quantity of digestive tract contents of broilers.

Carcass contamination from contents of the digestive tract during processing is a recurring problem for the broiler industry. Environment and feeding regimen are often implicated as causative factors. The effects of environmental temperature and meal feeding on passage of feed through the digestive tract of broilers were examined. Broilers were reared in environmental chambers in five experiments. In the first experiment, environmental temperatures were constant temperatures of 16 and 27 C and cycles of 16-24-16 and 24-35-24 C and rate of passage of feed through the digestive tract (ROP) was determined with ferric oxide. Temperature did not consistently affect ROP. In the other four experiments, various environmental temperatures were investigated and broilers were fed continuously or for 12 or 16 h/day. Contents of the crop, proventriculus plus gizzard, and small intestine were weighed 2, 4, 6, and 8 h after feeding withdrawal. Environmental temperature did not directly affect the movement of digesta but the feeding regimen affected the quantity of digesta in some segments of the tract. Environmental temperature may have indirectly affected the quantity of feed in the crop by affecting the quantity of feed consumed. Limiting the feeding period resulted in retention of digesta in the crop of some broilers for an extended period. This increased the variability in quantity of crop contents. A feeding regimen X temperature interaction resulted in increased small intestine weight for meal-fed broilers at 16 C.

The effect of brooding temperature on broiler performance.

In response to the energy crisis of the 1970s, this laboratory recommended that initial brooding temperatures for broilers be reduced to 29.4 C from 32.2 or 35 C. Because environmental temperature has been implicated in the ascites syndrome, this work was conducted to see whether the recommended brooding temperature of 29.4 C the 1st wk, 26.7 C the 2nd wk, and 23.9 C the 3rd wk would be satisfactory for broiler production when compared with higher brooding temperature regimens starting at 32.2 or 35 C. Brooding chicks at a temperature of 29.4 C the 1st wk, 26.7 C the 2nd wk, and 23.9 C the 3rd wk did not adversely affect broiler performance at 6 wk of age, when compared with higher brooding temperature regimens. Under the conditions of this experiment, brooding chicks at a temperature of 29.4 C the 1st wk, 26.7 C the 2nd wk, and 23.9 C the 3rd wk was satisfactory when compared with the higher temperature brooding regimens. Mortality due to ascites and total mortality significantly increased for broilers brooded in the negative control temperature regimen of 26.7 C the 1st wk, 23.9 C the 2nd wk, and 21.1 C when compared with some or all of the higher brooding temperature regimens. Heat loss calculations based on a commercial setting show an 18% savings in liquified petroleum (LP) gas usage for chicks brooded at 29.4 vs 35 C and a savings of 10% in LP gas usage for chicks brooded at 29.4 vs 32.2 C on a winter day.

The effect of nipple height on broiler performance.

Two trials, using a total of 3,200 male broilers, were conducted to compare the effects of a trough drinker versus three different heights on a nipple drinker system on body weight gain and feed:gain. The broilers were housed in temperature-controlled litter pens at 25 or 30 C. An 8-ft open trough was used. The nipple drinker heights were adjusted as 1) low (no neck stretch and drink from the side of the beak), 2) medium (stretch neck and drink from the end of the beak), and 3) high (first elevate breast, then stretch neck and drink from the end of the beak) positions. The nipple heights were adjusted twice weekly by visual inspection. The open drinker produced the heaviest birds. No significant treatment differences were observed for feed:gain at 25 C but increased numerically with increasing nipple height. This same pattern was evident at 30 C, but statistically significant differences did occur. Drinking from a nipple drinker is an unnatural drinking act for birds, and the greater the neck extension, especially during a panting situation, the more detrimental the effect on both body weight and feed:gain.

Total and water-soluble phosphorus in broiler litter over three flocks with alum litter treatment and dietary inclusion of high available phosphorus corn and phytase supplementation.

Three pen trials were conducted to determine the main effect of alum addition to litter on form of poultry litter P using a 2 x 2 factorial structure of the subunit treatments: diets including high available phosphorus/low phytate corn (HAPC) and phytase (PHYT). Male broilers (1,760 per flock) were grown to 42 d having starter diets with 0.45% available P and grower diets with 0.35% available P. In the first trial, total litter P (tP) was greatest for the yellow dent corn (YDC) diet (12 g/kg) and least for the HAPC and PHYT combination (H&P) diet (6.9 g/kg) with the individual PHYT and HAPC diets falling in between at 9.1 g/kg and 9.4 g/kg tP. Also in the first trial, the litter water-soluble P (wP) was highest for PHYT (2.8 g/kg), least for the HAPC and H&P diets (1.5 g/kg) with the YDC diet falling between (2.2 g/kg). Alum was added to the litter after the first experiment. In the second and third experiments, alum inclusion significantly reduced the wP when compared with the treatments with no alum. In the third trial, the least wP was present in the alum-HAPC treatment. Phytase, YDC, and HAPC diets with no alum litter treatment generated the most wP. Since these diets appear to have little or no difference with respect to quantity of wP, this work suggests that form of litter P generated by alternative diets should be considered as criteria when attempting to reduce P in broiler litter applied to land.