A molecular phylogeny of the harriers (Circus, Accipitridae) indicate the role of long distance dispersal and migration in diversification.

The monophyly of the raptorial Circus genus (harriers) has never been in question, but the specific status of many, often vulnerable island endemic, taxa remains uncertain. Here we utilise one mitochondrial and three nuclear loci from all currently recognised Circus taxa (species and subspecies) to infer a robust phylogeny, to estimate the divergence date and to reconstruct the biogeographic origins of the Circus group. Our phylogeny supports both the monophyly of Circus and polyphyly of the genus Accipiter. Depending on the rate of molecular clock used, the emergence of the harrier clade took place between 4.9 and 12.2mya which coincides with the worldwide formation of open habitats which extant harriers now exploit. The sister relationship of the Northern Harrier C. cyaneus hudsonius and the Cinereous Harrier C. cinereus contradicts previous classifications that treated the former as conspecific with the Hen Harrier C. cyaneus cyaneus. Thus both should be elevated to species status: C. hudsonius and C. cyaneus. Further, the African Marsh C. ranivorus and the European Marsh C. aeruginosus Harriers emerge as sister species. The remaining marsh harriers exhibit very little genetic diversity, and are all recently diverged taxa that exhibit allopatric distributions. Considering their sister relationship and geographic proximity, we recommend treating C. approximans and C. spilonotus spilothorax as subspecies of C. approximans. For C. spilonotus spilonotus C. maillardi maillardi and C. maillardi macrosceles, their plumage and morphometric differences, phylogenetic relationship and geographic distributions make lumping of these taxa as a single species complicated. We thus propose to recognise as separate, recently evolved species: C. spilonotus, C. maillardi and C. macrosceles. Biogeographic inferences on the ancestral origin of harriers are uncertain, indicating that the harriers emerged in either the Neotropics, Palearctic or Australasia. We are, however, able to show that speciation within the harriers was driven by long range dispersal and migration events.

Declines in migrant shorebird populations from a winter-quarter perspective.

Many long-distance migrating shorebird (i.e., sandpipers, plovers, flamingos, oystercatchers) populations are declining. Although regular shorebird monitoring programs exist worldwide, most estimates of shorebird population trends and sizes are poor or nonexistent. We built a state-space model to estimate shorebird population trends. Compared with more commonly used methods of trend estimation, state-space models are more mechanistic, allow for the separation of observation and state process, and can easily accommodate multivariate time series and nonlinear trends. We fitted the model to count data collected from 1990 to 2013 on 18 common shorebirds at the 2 largest coastal wetlands in southern Africa, Sandwich Harbour (a relatively pristine bay) and Walvis Bay (an international harbor), Namibia. Four of the 12 long-distance migrant species declined since 1990: Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Little Stint (Calidris minuta), Common Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiaticula), and Red Knot (Calidris canutus). Populations of resident species and short-distance migrants increased or were stable. Similar patterns at a key South African wetland suggest that shorebird populations migrating to southern Africa are declining in line with the global decline, but local conditions in southern Africa's largest wetlands are not contributing to these declines. State-space models provide estimates of population levels and trends and could be used widely to improve the current state of water bird estimates.

Seasonal Movement Patterns of Urban Domestic Cats Living on the Edge in an African City.

Domestic cats (Felis catus) are amongst the most destructive invasive vertebrates globally, depredating billions of native animals annually. The size and seasonal variation of their geographical "footprint" is key to understanding their effects on wildlife, particularly if they live near conservation areas. Here we report the first GPS-tracking studies of free-roaming owned cats in the city of Cape Town, South Africa. A total of 23 cats was tracked (14 cats in summer, 9 in winter) using miniature (22 g) GPS locators in 2010-2011. In summer, all cats living on the urban-edge (UE: n = 7) made extensive use of protected areas, while only one of seven urban (U) cats (>150 m from the edge) did so. In winter two of four UE and two of five U cats entered protected areas. Home ranges (95% kernel density estimates) were significantly larger in summer (3.00 ± 1.23 ha) than winter (0.87 ± 0.25 ha) and cats ventured further from their homes in summer (maximum 849 m) than in winter (max 298 m). The predation risk posed by caracal (Caracal caracal) may limit the time cats spend in protected areas, but our results suggest that cat buffers around conservation areas should be at least ~600 m wide to reduce impacts to native fauna.

Population viability assessment of an endangered raptor using detection/non-detection data reveals susceptibility to anthropogenic impacts.

As the demand for carbon-neutral energy sources increases, so does the need to understand the impacts that these technologies have on the environment. Here, we assess the potential consequences of additional mortality on an Endangered raptor recently exposed to wind farms for the first time, the Black Harrier Circus maurus, one of the world's rarest harriers. We conduct a population viability assessment using a Bayesian model integrating life-history information and annual reporting rates from detection/non-detection surveys from the South African Bird Atlas Project. Our model estimates a global population of approximately 1300 birds currently declining at 2.3% per year, and one that could collapse in under 100 years, if an average of three to five adult birds are killed annually. This level of mortality may soon exist, given the current rate of fatalities and the number of wind farms planned within the species' distribution. In addition, we find that the population is sensitive to changes in climate. Our results highlight the critical need for appropriate placement, and adaptive management of wind farms and other infrastructure causing harrier mortality. We also show how detection/non-detection data may be used to infer population dynamics and viability, when population counts are unavailable.

Migratory patterns and settlement areas revealed by remote sensing in an endangered intra-African migrant, the Black Harrier (Circus maurus).

Annual movements have been widely described for birds migrating across the Americas and between Eurasia and Africa, yet relatively little information exists for intra-African migrants. Identifying the areas used throughout a species annual cycle by understanding migratory patterns and settlement areas during breeding and non-breeding seasons is essential for conservation initiatives. Here, we describe for the first time, the migratory patterns and settlement areas of an endangered raptor endemic to Southern Africa, the Black Harrier (Circus maurus). From 2008 to 2015, thirteen breeding adult Black Harriers were trapped in south-western South Africa and fitted either with a GPS-GSM or with a PTT tracker device. Adults were monitored for 365 ± 198 days (range: 56-819 days) revealing great individual variability in annual movements. Most Black Harriers performed an unusual West-East migration from their breeding areas, but routes of all migrating individuals covered the entire southern land area of South Africa and Lesotho. The distance travelled averaged 814 ± 324 km, but unlike many other species, migrants travelled faster during post-breeding (i.e. austral summer) (207.8 ± 113.2 km.day-1) than during pre-breeding (i.e. austral winter/spring) migrations (143.8 ± 32.2 km.day-1). Although most marked individuals displayed movements similar to those that bred following pre-breeding migrations, only two of thirteen were confirmed as breeders the year after being tagged. This suggests that individuals may sometimes take a sabbatical year in reproduction, although this requires confirmation. Most tagged birds died on migration or during the non-breeding season. Adults frequently returned to the same non-breeding settlement areas, and often used up to 3 different locations an average of about 200 km apart. On the other hand, there was wide variation in distance between subsequent reproductive events. We discuss the implications of our study for the conservation of Black Harriers and more broadly for intra-African bird migrants.

Blood concentrations of PCBs and DDTs in an avian predator endemic to southern Africa: Associations with habitat, electrical transformers and diet.

Persistent pollutants such as organochlorine compounds (OCs) have been highlighted as a cause of population decline in avian predators. Understanding patterns of OCs contamination can be crucial for the conservation of affected species, yet little is known on these threats to African raptors. Here we report on OC concentrations in an endangered predator endemic to southern Africa, the Black Harrier Circus maurus. Blood samples were collected in 2012-2014 from wild nestlings (n = 90) and adults (n = 23) in south-western South Africa, where agriculture and urbanization have developed rapidly since the 1950s. Polychlorinated biphenyl (ΣPCB) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (ΣDDT, for p,p'-DDT + p,p'-DDE) were detected in 79% and 84% of sampled individuals, respectively, with varying concentrations among demographic groups: nestlings had significantly higher ΣPCB and p,p'-DDT concentrations than adults, while adults had higher levels of p,p'-DDE than nestlings. Levels of ΣPCB significantly increased with an index of electric transformer density, a measure of the number and power of electric transformers around active nests. We propose this index as a useful tool for assessing ΣPCB exposure risk in other wildlife. Levels of p,p'-DDE significantly increased with the proportion of wetlands within the breeding territory, and also with the proportion of bird biomass in the diet. No association was found between OC levels and the protected area status of nesting sites. Physiological effects of contaminants were also manifest in increased white blood cell counts with higher p,p'-DDT levels. Heterophil to lymphocyte ratio increased with higher ΣPCB levels, suggesting increased physiological stress and reduced immunity in contaminated individuals. Our results suggest that OCs are still a current cause of concern for endangered Black Harriers, as well as other sympatric predators.

Pollutants and diet influence carotenoid levels and integument coloration in nestlings of an endangered raptor.

Carotenoid-based traits or ornaments, such as yellow-red integuments (feathers, beaks, legs or eye-rings) displayed by birds, play key roles in social communication by reliably advertising an individual's quality or health. In some species, these traits are displayed not only by adults but also by nestlings, and function in parent-offspring communication or sibling competition by advertising an individual's physical or physiological condition. Pollutants such as organochlorine compounds (OCs) could have disruptive effects on the coloration of these traits, thereby interfering with communication processes. Such effects have been reported in adult birds, but are still largely unknown for nestlings. Here we investigated associations between polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) blood-levels, circulating carotenoid levels and the yellow-orange coloration of the cere and tarsi of wild Black Harrier Circus maurus nestlings, a scarce raptor endemic to southern Africa. As carotenoid pigments must be acquired through the diet, we also tested for an effect of dietary composition. The orangeness-purity of cere and tarsi coloration positively correlated with circulating carotenoid levels, and increased with both nestling age and the proportion of birds consumed in the diet. Circulating carotenoid levels and the orangeness-purity of colored integuments were unrelated to blood PCB levels, although the brightness of integuments (i.e. lack of pigmentation) increased with PCB levels. Nestlings with more DDT had lower levels of circulating carotenoids and reduced carotenoid-based coloration (i.e. higher hue and lower saturation, reflecting a yellow rather than orange and less intense color, respectively). Together, our results are consistent with the hypothesis that OC contaminants, in particular DDT, may disrupt carotenoid-based signaling in exposed nestlings.

Uma adaptacao da Escala de Dogmatismo de Rokeach para aplicacao no Brasil

Este trabalho refere-se a validacao de uma adaptacao da Escala de Dogmatismo de Rokeach (Forma E) para aplicacao em investigacoes no Brasil. Dogmatismo e uma variavel de personalidade que tem sido estudada em relacao ao funcionamento do individuo em varios aspectos, como por exemplo, na area cognitiva, de auto-estima, motivacao. O estudo, apos os procedimentos de validacao, apresenta 31 declaracoes que podem ser utilizadas em uma escala brasileira de dogmatismo.