Acoustic deterrents influence foraging activity, flight and echolocation behaviour of free-flying bats.

Acoustic deterrents have shown potential as a viable mitigation measure to reduce human impacts on bats; however, the mechanisms underpinning acoustic deterrence of bats have yet to be explored. Bats avoid ambient ultrasound in their environment and alter their echolocation calls in response to masking noise. Using stereo thermal videogrammetry and acoustic methods, we tested predictions that: (i) bats would avoid acoustic deterrents and forage and social call less in a 'treated airspace'; (ii) deterrents would cause bats to fly with more direct flight paths akin to commuting behaviour and in line with a reduction in foraging activity, resulting in increased flight speed and decreased flight tortuosity; and (iii) bats would alter their echolocation call structure in response to the masking deterrent sound. As predicted, overall bat activity was reduced by 30% and we recorded a significant reduction in counts of Pipistrellus pygmaeus (27%), Myotis spp. (probably M. daubentonii) (26%), and Nyctalus spp. and Eptesicus spp. (68%) passes. Pipistrellus pygmaeus feeding buzzes were also reduced by the deterrent in relation to general activity (by 38%); however, social calls were not (only 23% reduction). Bats also increased their flight speed and reduced the tortuosity of their flight paths, and P. pygmaeus reduced echolocation call bandwidth and start frequency of calls in response to deterrent playback, probably owing to the masking effect of the sound. Deterrence could therefore be used to remove bats from areas where they forage, for example wind turbines and roads, where they may be under threat from direct mortality.

Comparing acoustic and radar deterrence methods as mitigation measures to reduce human-bat impacts and conservation conflicts.

Where humans and wildlife co-exist, mitigation is often needed to alleviate potential conflicts and impacts. Deterrence methods can be used to reduce impacts of human structures or activities on wildlife, or to resolve conservation conflicts in areas where animals may be regarded as a nuisance or pose a health hazard. Here we test two methods (acoustic and radar) that have shown potential for deterring bats away from areas where they forage and/or roost. Using both infrared video and acoustic methods for counting bat passes, we show that ultrasonic speakers were effective as bat deterrents at foraging sites, but radar was not. Ultrasonic deterrents decreased overall bat activity (filmed on infrared cameras) by ~80% when deployed alone and in combination with radar. However, radar alone had no effect on bat activity when video or acoustic data were analysed using generalised linear mixed effect models. Feeding buzzes of all species were reduced by 79% and 69% in the ultrasound only treatment when compared to the control and radar treatments, but only the ultrasound treatment was significant in post-hoc tests. Species responded differently to the ultrasound treatments and we recorded a deterrent effect on both Pipistrellus pipistrellus (~40-80% reduction in activity) and P. pygmaeus (~30-60% reduction), but not on Myotis species. However, only the ultrasound and radar treatment was significant (when compared to control and radar) in post-hoc tests for P. pipistrellus. Deterrent treatment was marginally non-significant for P. pygmaeus, but the ultrasound only treatment was significant when compared to radar in post-hoc tests. We therefore suggest that acoustic, but not radar methods are explored further as deterrents for bats. The use of acoustic deterrence should always be assessed on a case-by-case basis, with a focus on bat conservation.

Astronomy and solar physics: measurement of the solar spectral irradiance from 200 to 3000 nanometers.

The solar spectrum experiment on Spacelab 1 measured 98 percent of the sun's total energy output. It improved the absolute accuracy of solar irradiance data, especially in the ultraviolet and infrared regions. In order to detect any variation in the spectrum on future shuttle flights, the data were obtained in a radiation scale that can be preserved with high precision over many years. The instrument performance and preliminary data reduction are described.

SNAP-23 and syntaxin-3 are required for chemokine release by mature human mast cells.

Mast cells play a key role in allergic and non-allergic disease by releasing a broad array of mediators. Soluble N-ethyl-maleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) are necessary for membrane fusion events during mast cell exocytosis. We have shown recently that the SNAREs SNAP-23, syntaxin (STX)-4, vesicle associated membrane protein (VAMP)-7, and VAMP-8 are required for release of pre-stored histamine by mast cells. Here we analyze the involvement of different SNARE isoforms in exocytosis of de novo synthesized chemokines in mast cells isolated from human intestine. Following IgE receptor cross-linking, mast cells released substantial amounts of the chemokines CXCL8, CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4. Measurement of SNARE mRNA expression revealed only a moderate up-regulation of mRNA for STX-4 after stimulation for 1.5h. Inhibition of SNAP-23 or STX-3 abolished IgE mediated release of the chemokines CXCL8, CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4. In contrast, blocking of STX-2, or VAMP-3 did not affect the chemokine release. Inhibition of STX-4 or VAMP-8 resulted in a reduced release of CXCL8, but not of CCL2, CCL3, or CCL4. Inhibition of STX-6 attenuated the release of CXCL8 and CCL2, inhibition of VAMP-7 that of CCL3. In summary, STX-3 and SNAP-23 are crucial for the release of all chemokines in mature human mast cells whereas other SNAREs affect only release of selected chemokines.

Vesicle associated membrane protein (VAMP)-7 and VAMP-8, but not VAMP-2 or VAMP-3, are required for activation-induced degranulation of mature human mast cells.

Mediator release from mast cells (MC) is a crucial step in allergic and non-allergic inflammatory disorders. However, the final events in response to activation leading to membrane fusion and thereby facilitating degranulation have hitherto not been analyzed in human MC. Soluble N-ethyl-maleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNARE) represent a highly conserved family of proteins that have been shown to mediate intracellular membrane fusion events. Here, we show that mature MC isolated from human intestinal tissue express soluble N-ethylmaleide sensitive factor attachment protein (SNAP)-23, Syntaxin (STX)-1B, STX-2, STX-3, STX-4, and STX-6 but not SNAP-25. Furthermore, we found that primary human MC express substantial amounts of vesicle associated membrane protein (VAMP)-3, VAMP-7 and VAMP-8 and, in contrast to previous reports about rodent MC, only low levels of VAMP-2. Furthermore, VAMP-7 and VAMP-8 were found to translocate to the plasma membrane and interact with SNAP-23 and STX-4 upon activation. Inhibition of SNAP-23, STX-4, VAMP-7 or VAMP-8, but not VAMP-2 or VAMP-3, resulted in a markedly reduced high-affinity IgE receptor-mediated histamine release. In summary, our data show that mature human MC express a specific pattern of SNARE and that VAMP-7 and VAMP-8, but not VAMP-2, are required for rapid degranulation.

Nightglow in the upper atmosphere of Mars and implications for atmospheric transport.

We detected light emissions in the nightside martian atmosphere with the SPICAM (spectroscopy for the investigation of the characteristics of the atmosphere of Mars) ultraviolet (UV) spectrometer on board the Mars Express. The UV spectrum of this nightglow is composed of hydrogen Lyman alpha emission (121.6 nanometers) and the gamma and delta bands of nitric oxide (NO) (190 to 270 nanometers) produced when N and O atoms combine to produce the NO molecule. N and O atoms are produced by extreme UV photodissociation of O2, CO2, and N2 in the dayside upper atmosphere and transported to the night side. The NO emission is brightest in the winter south polar night because of continuous downward transport of air in this region at night during winter and because of freezing at ground level.

Susceptibility of Fusobacterium necrophorum to antimicrobials. Part I: as determined by the disc method.

The susceptibility of 25 isolates of Fusobacterium necrophorum to 37 antimicrobials was tested using the disc method. F. necrophorum was susceptible to 15 antimicrobials, resistant to 12. To the remaining ten antimicrobials some isolates were completely resistant whereas others showed partial resistance.

The effect of temperature on growth and survival of Fusobacterium necrophorum isolated from bovine liver abscesses.

The ability of Fusobacterium necrophorum to survive or grow in liquid nitrogen or at temperatures between -10 degrees and 59 degrees C was determined. The organism remained viable but did not grow in liquid nitrogen or between -10 degrees and 21 degrees C. It grew between 22 degrees and 43 degrees C. No isolate grew at temperatures above 43 degrees C and all three isolates survived for a minimum of 15 minutes and an average of 25 minutes at 59 degrees C. The optimum temperature for maximum growth was 37 degrees C. The organism survived in ampoules stored in liquid nitrogen for eight years. It survived in liver abscesses stored at -10 degrees C for five years and as cultures in screw capped tubes for three years.

Cultivation and maintenance of Sphaerophorus necrophorus. Part II: Influence of pH on maximum growth and acid production in Medium 156.

Sphaerophorus necrophorus was grown in Medium 156 at 40 pH values ranging from 4.93 to 9.46. Growth occurred between pH 5.30 and 9.28. The optimum pH for maximum growth was 6.84 while the optimum pH for acid production was 7.70. At pH 7.70 acid production was more than double that at pH 6.84 during a 12 hour incubation period. Thus, maximum growth occurs at one pH and maximum acid producation at another. Since the two optima are different, acid production should be evaluated only when: 1. an optimum medium is employed, 2. the optimum pH for acid production is employed. 3. the incubation period necessary for maximum acid production has elapsed before the test is conducted.

A simple method for rapid identification of Sphaerophorus necrophorus isolates.

A hemagglutination inhibition test for the rapid identification of Sphaerophorus necrophorus is described. Erythrocytes from six species of animals were tested and human cells were found to be the best agglutination indicators. Antiserum prepared in rabbits was found to be specific for S. necrophorus hemagglutinins when tested against 20 isolates of S. necrophorus and 117 other bacteria belonging to 22 genera. The possibility of using a hemagglutination inhibition test for the detection of bovine necrobacillosis was explored.

A simple technique for mass cultivation of Campylobacter fetus.

Studies using 86 media for maximum growth of Campylobacter fetus for antigen production showed that a diphasic medium (solid base with liquid overlay) was most suitable. The solid base was double strength cystine heart agar. The liquid overlay was thioglycollate medium of Brewer (135-C) without agar. This medium yielded maximum growth of C. fetus in six days with good motility, less clumping and less filament formation than all other media tried.

Cultivation and maintenance of Sphaerophorus necrophorus. I. An anaerobic medium for aerobic incubation.

Out of 185 media formulated and studied for the growth of Sphaerophorus necrophorus, ten were selected for intensive investigation. Their ability to promote growth was compared photometrically. Medium 156 made up of Brewer's thioglycollate broth, yeast extract, L-cystine, and ascorbic acid, was found to yield a very heavy growth. The viability of S. necrophorus was maintained indefinitely by weekly subcultures. When not subcultured, all isolates remained viable for fifteen weeks and some isolates for 30 weeks at 37 degrees C.Twenty-nine isolates were tested. No variation in maximum growth was noticed. Medium 156 is an optimum medium for S. necrophorus. It can be incubated aerobically without interfering with maximum growth. The medium does not deteriorate when stored for at least 12 weeks at room temperature.

Isolation of Sphaerophorus necrophorus from bovine hepatic abscesses in British Columbia.

The purpose of this study was to determine the predominant microflora in hepatic abscesses of cattle slaughtered in British Columbia. Samples of approximately 400 livers were examined by direct smear and culture. Sphaerophorus necrophorus was present in 97% of the 431 abscesses and in 67% it was present in pure culture. In 30% it was present in combination with other organisms such as coryne-bacterium and streptococcus.