Indoor environmental quality in naturally ventilated schools of a dusty region: Excess health risks and effect of heating and desert dust transport.

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is impacted by polluted outdoor air in naturally ventilated schools, especially in places where both anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient air pollution exist. CO2 , PM2.5 , PM10 , temperature, relative humidity (RH), and noise were measured in five naturally ventilated primary schools in City of Sanliurfa, in a dusty region of Turkey, Southeast Anatolia. Excess risk levels were estimated for particulate matter. Investigation was conducted through an educational year including two seasons in terms of anthropogenic effect, that is, heating/non-heating, and natural effect, that is, desert dust transport/non-dust transport. The median CO2 concentration was measured to be >1000 ppm in all seasons/schools. Temperature and RH fell out of the comfort zone in October-December, during which pollutant concentrations were considerably increased, specifically in November, that heating and dust transport periods coincide. The overall mean indoor PM10 and PM2.5 levels were 58 and 31.8 µg/m3 , respectively. Risk assessment indicate that both short (incidence of asthma symptoms in asthmatic children) and long-term (prevalence of bronchitis) effects are considerable with 10.9 (2.4-19.6)% and 19.5 (2.2-38.8)%, respectively. The findings suggest that mechanical ventilation retrofitting with particle filtration is needed to mitigate potential negative health consequences on children.

Selected Persistent Organic Pollutants in Ambient Air in Turkey: Regional Sources and Controlling Factors.

As a result of its unique location, Turkey receives air masses from Europe, Russia, Middle East, and Africa, making it an important place in terms of long-range atmospheric transport (LRT) of contaminants. Atmospheric levels of 22 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 45 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and 14 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in two metropolitan cities, Istanbul and Izmir, on a weekly basis from May 2014 to May 2015. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its derivatives were dominant OCP species, followed by isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) at both sites. The annual mean concentration of ∑DDX (sum of o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDE, and p,p'-DDE) was 82 pg/m3 for Istanbul and 89 pg/m3 for Izmir, while these levels were about 46 pg/m3 for ∑HCHs (sum of α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-HCH) at both of the sites. At both stations, tri- and tetra-PCBs and tetra- and penta-PBDEs were dominant congeners. The temperature dependence indicates that both LRT and local contaminated areas contribute to the elevated levels. A Lagrangian particle dispersion model (FLEXPART) showed a few potential source regions in northern Africa and Middle East, southern-southwestern and eastern Europe including Russia, as well as from local domestic metropolitan areas.

Fast Formation of Nitro-PAHs in the Marine Atmosphere Constrained in a Regional-Scale Lagrangian Field Experiment.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and some of their nitrated derivatives, NPAHs, are seemingly ubiquitous in the atmospheric environment. Atmospheric lifetimes may nevertheless vary within a wide range, and be as short as a few hours. The sources and sinks of NPAH in the atmosphere are not well understood. With a Lagrangian field experiment and modeling, we studied the conversion of the semivolatile PAHs fluoranthene and pyrene into the 2-nitro derivatives 2-nitrofluoranthene and 2-nitropyrene in a cloud-free marine atmosphere on the time scale of hours to 1 day between a coastal and an island site. Chemistry and transport during several episodes was simulated by a Lagrangian box model i.e., a box model coupled to a Lagrangian particle dispersion model, FLEXPART-WRF. It is found that the chemical kinetic data do capture photochemical degradation of the 4-ring PAHs under ambient conditions on the time scale of hours to 1 day, while the production of the corresponding NPAH, which sustained 2-nitrofluoranthene/fluoranthene and 2-nitropyrene/pyrene yields of (3.7 ± 0.2) and (1.5 ± 0.1)%, respectively, is by far underestimated. Predicted levels of NPAH come close to observed ones, when kinetic data describing the reactivity of the OH-adduct were explored by means of theoretically based estimates. Predictions are also underestimated by 1-2 orders of magnitude, when NPAH/PAH yields reported from laboratory experiments conducted under high NOx conditions are adopted for the simulations. It is concluded that NPAH sources effective under low NOx conditions, are largely underestimated.

Multi-route - Multi-pathway exposure to trihalomethanes and associated cumulative health risks with response and dose addition.

Cumulative health risk estimation for exposure to mixtures is a current issue, which would present a useful tool for environmental and public health management. Cumulative risks were estimated with response and dose addition methods for individual multi-route - multi-pathway exposure to trihalomethanes and associated carcinogenic toxic risks in Izmir, Turkey. Exposure levels were estimated for ingestion, dermal, and inhalation routes using measured tap water and bottled water THM concentrations. Drinking, showering, hand and dish washing were the considered pathways. THM concentrations in air during the showering were modeled with two-resistance theory using tap water concentration data. The estimated carcinogenic risk levels for ingestion route were in the range of safe (<10-6) to low priority (<10-4), for dermal route all were in the safe zone (<10-6), and for inhalation route were in the range of safe to high priority (>10-4) zones, indicating ingestion and inhalation routes were of similar significance ahead of dermal exposure. Cumulative carcinogenic risks of THM compounds were estimated using simple (response) addition and dose addition using cumulative relative potency factor (CRPF) methods. CRPF method estimated the risks at lower levels compared to the simple addition, which originated from the use two different risk factor values for the index chemical in the method. Cumulative chronic-toxic risks were also assessed, rendering below the threshold risk levels for all routes. This study showed that multi-route - multi-pathway exposure assessment and cumulative risk assessment should together be considered for better environmental and public health management.

An exposure-risk assessment for potentially toxic elements in rice and bulgur.

Rice and wheat are rich sources of essential elements. However, they may also accumulate potentially toxic elements (PTE). Bulgur, the popular alternative to rice in the eastern Mediterranean, is produced by processing wheat, during which PTE content may change. This study determined PTE concentrations in rice and bulgur collected from 50 participant households in the city of Izmir, Turkey, estimated ingestion exposure, and associated chronic-toxic and carcinogenic human health risks. Comparison of the determined concentrations to the available standard levels and the levels reported in the literature revealed that Cd, Co, and Pb in rice might be of concern. The estimated health risks of individual participants supported this result with exceedance of respective threshold or acceptable risk levels at the 95th percentile. Population risk estimates indicated that the proportion with higher than the threshold or acceptable risk is about 10, 24, and 12% for Cd, Co, and Pb in rice, respectively. Results of this study showed that health risks associated with PTE exposure through bulgur consumption are lower than those of rice, and below the threshold or acceptable risk levels.

Inhalation and dermal exposure to atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and associated carcinogenic risks in a relatively small city.

The aim of this study was to conduct a carcinogenic risk assessment for exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) via routes of inhalation and dermal contact. Concentrations of 19 PAH species were determined during a heating period at a site in the city of Balikesir, Turkey. Two questionnaires were administered to a sample of inhabitants to determine time-activity budgets and demographic information. The assessment was conducted for each participant and Balikesir population by deterministic and probabilistic approaches, respectively. Monte Carlo simulation was implemented to determine the population exposure-risk probability distributions. The estimates were based on benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (BaPeq) total PAH concentrations calculated using toxic equivalency factors. The mean and median BaPeq concentrations of gaseous and particulate phases were 3.25 and 1.34, and 38.5 and 34.0ng/m(3), respectively. Carcinogenic risk for inhalation exposure route was estimated by using two different slope factor values (3.9 and 304.5(mg/kg-day)(-1)), recommended by two different organizations, resulting in two (order(s) of magnitude apart) population risk ranges: 1.32×10(-7)-2.23×10(-4), and 1.61×10(-5)-7.95×10(-3), respectively. The population risks associated with dermal exposure were lower compared to those of inhalation, ranging from 6.58×10(-9) to 2.57×10(-6). The proportion of the population with risks higher than the general acceptable level (1.0×10(-6)) was estimated as >99 percent, for inhalation, and as 28 percent for dermal exposure route.

Removal of pesticide residues from apple and tomato cuticle.

Pesticide residues are always an unsolved problem in the world despite all kinds of prevention measures. The present research work is based on a scientific hypothesis, i.e., "The removal of average pesticide residue is inversely proportional to the thickness of cuticle." The effects of boron-containing products and plant-based surfactants were tested for the removal of five pesticides (lambda-cyhalothrin, chlorpyrifos, diflubenzuron, metaflumizone, acetamiprid) on tomatoes and apples. Boron-containing products were able to remove the pesticide residues on average between 58.0 and 72.6% in tomatoes and 33.2-58.8% in an apple. While plant-based surfactants removed residues on average between 58.5 and 66.6% in tomatoes and 41.0-53.2% in an apple. The highest removal rate was 72% with etidot at 1%. The solution of 1% C8-C10 provided 66.6% average removal for tomatoes. Less removal was achieved in apples. For an apple, Log Kow and molecular mass (independent variables) were significant with p < 0.01, and the coefficient of determination (R2) was > 0.87. However, the multiple linear regression analysis for ground colemanite was significant with R2 of 0.96. In tomatoes, neither Log Kow nor molecular mass as significant. The correlation was found between the physical and chemical properties of pesticides, but it is estimated that the thickness of the cuticle is effective in removing pesticides.

The effect of military conflict zone in the Middle East on atmospheric persistent organic pollutant contamination in its north.

This study aimed to investigate long-range atmospheric transport of selected POPs released due to the effects of military conflicts in regions to the south of Turkey's borders. Ten locations were selected to deploy passive air samplers at varying distances to the border on a southeast-west transect of the country, proximity-grouped as close, middle, and far. Sampling campaign included winter and transition months when desert dust transport events occur. Hypothesis of the study was that a decreasing trend would be observed with increasing distance to the border. Group comparisons based on statistical testing showed that PBDE-183, Σ45PCB, and dieldrin in winter; PBDE-28, PBDE-99, PBDE-154, p,p'-DDE, Σ14PBDE, and Σ25OCP in the transition period; and PBDE-28, PBDE-85, PBDE-99, PBDE-154, PBDE-190, PCB-52, Σ45PCB, p,p'-DDE, and Σ25OCP over the whole campaign had a decreasing trend on the transect. An analysis of concentration ratio to the background showed that long-range atmospheric transport impacted the study sites, especially those of close group in comparison to the local sources. Back-trajectory analyses indicated that there was transport from the conflict areas to sites in the close-proximity group, while farther sampling locations mostly received air masses from Europe, Russia, and former Soviet Union countries, followed by North Africa, rather than the military conflict areas. In consequence, decrease in concentrations with distance and its relation to molecular weight through proportions, diagnostic ratios, analysis of concentration ratio to the background, and back-trajectory analyses support the effect of transport from the military-conflict area to its north.

Exposure to Fumes of a Vegetable Margarine for Frying: Respiratory Effects in an Experimental Model.

Deep frying is one of the strongest emission sources into indoor air. A vegetable margarine has recently been used in commercial kitchens. This study investigated the respiratory effects of exposure to its fumes in an experimental model. A setup with glass chambers was constructed. A chamber housed a fryer. The fumes were transported to the other chamber where 24 Wistar albino rats were placed in four randomized groups: acute, subacute, chronic, and control for the exposure durations. PM10 concentration in the exposure chamber was monitored to ensure occupational levels were obtained. Sacrification was performed 24 h after exposure. Lung, trachea, and nasal concha specimens were evaluated by two blinded histologists under a light microscope with hematoxylin-eosin. Mild mononuclear cell infiltration, alveolar capillary membrane thickening, alveolar edema, and diffuse alveolar damage, along with diffuse hemorrhage, edema, and vascular congestion in the interstitium were observed in the acute and subacute groups, and were overexpressed in the chronic group, whereas normal lung histology was observed in the control group. The results indicate that exposure to fumes of vegetable margarine for frying in commercial kitchens may cause pulmonary inflammation that becomes severe as the duration of the exposure increases.

Countrywide Spatial Variation of Potentially Toxic Element Contamination in Soils of Turkey and Assessment of Population Health Risks for Nondietary Ingestion.

Countrywide surface soil concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in Turkey were reviewed in the Web of Science database. A total of 93 papers were investigated to compose a PTE dataset for determining spatial variations and estimating exposure and health risks. Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn were selected as PTEs in surface soil. A compiled PTE concentration dataset was used to estimate chronic toxic risks (CTRs) and carcinogenic risks (CRs) according to the deterministic and probabilistic approaches. While the CTR and CR levels of age and sex groups were estimated using a deterministic approach, population risks were estimated using a probabilistic approach. CTR and CR levels in lower age groups and female sex groups were estimated to be higher than those in higher age groups and associated male sex groups. The average CTR levels of the nondietary ingestion of As-containing soil in <11 year age groups were near/just above the threshold level, while As-associated average CR levels of adults and other age groups were estimated to be in the acceptable risk range (10-6 < CR < 10-5) and low priority risk range (10-5 < CR < 10-4), respectively. As-, Cr(VI)-, and Pb-associated upper-bound CR levels of the Turkish population were simulated to be 5.14 × 10-4, 6.23 × 10-5, and 2.34 × 10-6, respectively. Health risk models show the significance of As in both chronic toxic and carcinogenic effects.

Fine and coarse particulate matter, trace element content, and associated health risks considering respiratory deposition for Ergene Basin, Thrace.

Ergene Basin is located in Thrace, Turkey, where industries are densely populated. This study aimed to determine exposure of people living in Ergene Basin (Çorlu and Çerkezköy) to fine and coarse PM, and its potentially toxic element (PTE) content by considering variation in respiratory airway deposition rates with daily activities and PM particle size by employing deposition models of International Commission on Radiological Protection and Multiple Path Particle Dosimetry. Fine and coarse PM samples were collected daily for a year at points in Çorlu and Çerkezköy representing urban and industrial settings, respectively. A questionnaire survey was conducted in the study area to obtain time-activity budgets, and associated variation was included in the health risk assessment by considering time-activity-dependent inhalation rates. The studied PTEs were Al, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Co, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Se. The mean fine and coarse PM concentrations were measured as 23 and 14 µg/m3 in Çorlu, and 22 and 12 µg/m3 in Çerkezköy, respectively. The only PTE that exceeded acceptable risk in terms of total carcinogenic risk was Cr. Non-carcinogenic risks of all the PTEs including Cr were below the threshold. The use of deposition fractions in the health risk assessment (HRA) calculations was found to prevent overestimation of health risks by at least 91% and 87% for fine and coarse PM, respectively, compared to the regular HRA. Minor differences in risk between Çorlu and Çerkezköy suggest that urban pollution sources could be at least as influential on human health as industrial sources.

Indoor air partitioning of Synthetic Musk Compounds: Gas, particulate matter, house dust, and window film.

Due to diversity of contaminants indoors and complexity in the physical structure of particulate matter, partition process of chemicals affects indoor concentration distribution. Synthetic Musk Compounds (SMCs) are ubiquitously found in household and personal care products, thus, in the environment. Exposure to SMCs is important for human health, therefore, their partitioning in indoor environmental media is a key issue. In this study, gas - particle, house dust, and window film partitioning of SMCs were investigated in an indoor micro-environment. In a sealed and unoccupied room, a polycyclic and nitro musk mixture was left for volatilization for an hour. Then, samples were collected using XAD-2 sandwiched between two PUF plugs, glass-fiber filter, and wipes for gas, PM10, window-film, house dust phases, respectively, for 145 h. Collected samples were analyzed using a GC-MS. Results demonstrated that SMC concentrations decreased over time, non-linearly. Six of the SMCs partitioned to PM10 with at least 10% at beginning of the experiment, whereas the number of compounds dropped to two at the end, showing that SMCs may partition well between the two phases but they tend to be in the gas phase. They were also detected in the film and dust phases but a decrease pattern similar to gas-particle was not observed. Spearman correlations indicate that the dust and film-associated concentrations were governed by similar processes but PM-associated concentrations were not. SMCs may be found in all phases, mainly in house dust in terms of mass among the studied media and unaccounted surface reservoirs. Therefore, their partitioning between indoor media has key implications for human exposure.

A deterministic and stochastic assessment for exposure and risk of arsenic via ingestion of edible crops.

Natural arsenic contamination is a critical problem for various places around the world. Simav Plain (Kutahya, Turkey) is one such area that was shown to have natural arsenic contamination in its waters and soils. Arsenic exposure through ingestion of edible crops cultivated in Simav Plain and associated health risks were assessed in this study. To achieve this objective, arsenic levels in 18 crop species were estimated based on measured soil arsenic concentrations. Individual and aggregate non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks associated with ingestion of arsenic-contaminated crops were then assessed with scenario-based deterministic point estimates and stochastic population estimates. Monte Carlo simulation was used for the estimation of population health risks. Accordingly, wheat was found as the highest-ranked crop specie for the both types of health risks, followed by tomato and potato, which are three of the most consumed crops in the region. The risk levels estimated in this study were relatively high, indicating consumption of crops grown in the plain may be posing significant health risks even at lower-bound estimates. Consuming wheat, tomato, potato, and their products from uncontaminated sources was found to reduce the aggregate risks up to 88% implicating the importance of proposing suitable management measures for similar risk-prone areas.

Brominated flame retardants in a computer technical service: Indoor air gas phase, submicron (PM1) and coarse (PM10) particles, associated inhalation exposure, and settled dust.

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are found in multi-media indoors, therefore, may pose serious risks to human health. This study investigated the occurrence of BFRs in particulate matter (PM1 and PM10) and gas phase by active and passive sampling, and settled dust to estimate potential exposure in a computer technical service. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and their alternatives (novel BFRs, NBFRs) were studied. PM and gas phase were collected on glass fiber filters and polyurethane foam plugs, respectively, and analyzed with a GC/MS after extraction, clean-up, and concentration. Inhalation exposure of the staff was estimated based on the measured concentrations using Monte Carlo simulation. BDE-209 was the dominating PBDE congener in all media while bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate and 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane were those of NBFRs. Submicron particulate matter (PM1) BFR levels constituted about one half of the PM10-associated concentrations, while average PM10 mass concentration (69.9 µg m-3) was nine times that of PM1 (7.73 µg m-3). Calculated log10 dust-gas and PM-gas partitioning coefficients ranged from -5.03 to -2.10, -2.21 to -0.55, and -2.26 to -1.04 for settled dust, PM10, and PM1, respectively. The indoor/outdoor concentration ratios were >1 for all compounds indicating the strength of indoor sources in the service. The estimated potential inhalation exposures, for future chronic-toxic and carcinogenic risk assessments, indicated that the levels of gas-phase and PM1-associated exposures were similar at approximately one half of PM10-associated levels. Results of this study indicate that the occurrence of BFRs in all studied media should be taken into consideration for occupational health mitigation efforts.

Seasonal variation in drinking water concentrations of disinfection by-products in IZMIR and associated human health risks.

Seasonal variation in concentrations of two different disinfection by-product groups, trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetonitriles (HANs), was investigated in tap water samples collected from five sampling points (one groundwater and four surface water sources) in Izmir, Turkey. Estimates of previously published carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks through oral exposure to THMs were re-evaluated using a probabilistic approach that took the seasonal concentration variation into account. Chloroform, bromoform, dibromochloromethane and dichloroacetonitrile were the most frequently detected compounds. Among these, chloroform was detected with the highest concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 98.4 microg/L. In tap water, at the groundwater supplied sampling point, brominated species, bromoform and dibromoacetonitrile, were detected at the highest levels most probably due to bromide ion intrusion from seawater. The highest total THM and total HAN concentrations were detected in spring while the lowest in summer and fall. The annual average total THM concentration measured at one of the surface water supplied sampling points exceeded the USEPA's limit of 80 microg/L. While all non-carcinogenic risks due to exposure to THMs in Izmir drinking water were negligible, carcinogenic risk levels associated with bromodichloromethane and dibromochloromethane were higher than one in million.

An exposure and risk assessment for fluoride and trace metals in black tea.

Exposure and associated health risks for fluoride and trace metals in black tea were estimated. Fifty participants were randomly recruited to supply samples from the tea that they drink, and self-administer a questionnaire that inquired about personal characteristics and daily tea intake. Analyzed trace metals included aluminum, arsenic, barium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, manganese, nickel, strontium, and zinc. Fluoride and four metals (Al, Cr, Mn, Ni) were detected in all samples while barium was detected only in one sample. The remaining metals were detected in >60% of the samples. Fluoride and aluminum levels in instant tea bag samples were greater than in loose tea samples (p<0.05) while the differences in elemental concentrations of loose and pot bag tea samples were not significant. Median and 90th percentile daily tea intake rates were estimated as 0.35 and 1.1l/day, respectively. Neither fluoride nor aluminum levels in black tea were found to associate with considerable risks of fluorosis and Alzheimer's disease, respectively. However, carcinogenic risk levels for arsenic were high; R>1.0 x 10(-6) even at the median level. According to sensitivity analysis, daily tea intake was the most influencing variable to the risk except for arsenic for which the concentration distribution was of more importance.

MCDM analysis of wind energy in Turkey: decision making based on environmental impact.

Development of new wind energy projects require complex planning process involving many social, technical, economic, environmental, political concerns, and different agents such as investors, utilities, governmental agencies, or social groups. The aim of this study is to develop a tool combining Geographic Information System (GIS) and Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) methodologies, and its application for Turkey as a case study. A variety of constraints and criteria were identified based on a literature review and regulations gathered from variety of agencies, use of which resulted in determination of infeasible sites. Then, pairwise comparisons were carried out using analytic hierarchy process as the MCDM method to estimate relative importance of the criteria, and to visualize a suitability map with three classes. As the final stage, decision making was carried out based on environmental impact where 45.5% of the Turkish territory was found as infeasible area. Sixty percent of the remaining area are covered by the moderate suitability class, followed by the highly suitable area (20.3%) and low suitable area (19.8%). The output of this study can be used by energy planners to estimate the extent that wind energy can be developed based on public perception, administrative, and environmental aspects.

Source apportionment and carcinogenic risk assessment of passive air sampler-derived PAHs and PCBs in a heavily industrialized region.

Cancer has become the primary reason of deaths in Dilovasi probably due to its location with unique topography under the influence of heavy industrialization and traffic. In this study, possible sources and carcinogenic health risks of PAHs and PCBs were investigated in Dilovasi region by Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) and the USEPA approach, respectively. PAHs and PCBs were measured monthly for a whole year at 23 sampling sites using PUF disk passive samplers. Average ambient air concentrations were found as 285±431ng/m3 and 4152±6072pg/m3, for Σ15PAH and Σ41PCB, respectively. PAH concentrations increased with decreasing temperature especially at urban sites, indicating the impact of residential heating in addition to industrial activities and traffic. On the other hand, PCB concentrations mostly increased with temperature probably due to enhanced volatilization from their sources. Possible sources of PAHs were found as emissions of diesel and gasoline vehicles, biomass and coal combustion, iron and steel industry, and unburned petroleum/petroleum products, whereas iron-steel production, coal and biomass burning, technical PCB mixtures, and industrial emissions were identified for PCBs. The mean carcinogenic risk associated with inhalation exposure to PAHs and PCBs were estimated to be >10-6 and >10-5, respectively, at all sampling points, while the 95th percentile was >10-5 at 15 of 23 and >10-4 at 8 of 23 sampling locations, respectively. Probabilistic assessment showed, especially for PCBs, that a majority of Dilovasi population face significant health risks. The higher risks due to PCBs further indicated that PCBs and possibly other pollutants originating from the same sources such as PBDEs and PCNs may be an important issue for the region.

Spatial and seasonal variations, sources, air-soil exchange, and carcinogenic risk assessment for PAHs and PCBs in air and soil of Kutahya, Turkey, the province of thermal power plants.

Atmospheric and concurrent soil samples were collected during winter and summer of 2014 at 41 sites in Kutahya, Turkey to investigate spatial and seasonal variations, sources, air-soil exchange, and associated carcinogenic risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The highest atmospheric and soil concentrations were observed near power plants and residential areas, and the wintertime concentrations were generally higher than ones measured in summer. Spatial distribution of measured ambient concentrations and results of the factor analysis showed that the major contributing PAH sources in Kutahya region were the coal combustion for power generation and residential heating (48.9%), and diesel and gasoline exhaust emissions (47.3%) while the major PCB sources were the coal (thermal power plants and residential heating) and wood combustion (residential heating) (45.4%), and evaporative emissions from previously used technical PCB mixtures (34.7%). Results of fugacity fraction calculations indicated that the soil and atmosphere were not in equilibrium for most of the PAHs (88.0% in winter, 87.4% in summer) and PCBs (76.8% in winter, 83.8% in summer). For PAHs, deposition to the soil was the dominant mechanism in winter while in summer volatilization was equally important. For PCBs, volatilization dominated in summer while deposition was higher in winter. Cancer risks associated with inhalation and accidental soil ingestion of soil were also estimated. Generally, the estimated carcinogenic risks were below the acceptable risk level of 10-6. The percentage of the population exceeding the acceptable risk level ranged from <1% to 16%, except, 32% of the inhalation risk levels due to PAH exposure in winter at urban/industrial sites were >10-6.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in background air around the Aegean: implications for phase partitioning and size distribution.

The occurrence and atmospheric behavior of tri- to deca-polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were investigated during a 2-week campaign concurrently conducted in July 2012 at four background sites around the Aegean Sea. The study focused on the gas/particle (G/P) partitioning at three sites (Ag. Paraskevi/central Greece/suburban, Finokalia/southern Greece/remote coastal, and Urla/Turkey/rural coastal) and on the size distribution at two sites (Neochorouda/northern Greece/rural inland and Finokalia/southern Greece/remote coastal). The lowest mean total (G + P) concentrations of ∑7PBDE (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-66, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154) and BDE-209 (0.81 and 0.95 pg m-3, respectively) were found at the remote site Finokalia. Partitioning coefficients, K P, were calculated, and their linear relationships with ambient temperature and the physicochemical properties of the analyzed PBDE congeners, i.e., the subcooled liquid pressure (P L°) and the octanol-air partition coefficient (K OA), were investigated. The equilibrium adsorption (P L°-based) and absorption (K OA-based) models, as well as a steady-state absorption model including an equilibrium and a non-equilibrium term, both being functions of log K OA, were used to predict the fraction Φ of PBDEs associated with the particle phase. The steady-state model proved to be superior to predict G/P partitioning of BDE-209. The distribution of particle-bound PBDEs across size fractions < 0.95, 0.95-1.5, 1.5-3.0, 3.0-7.2, and > 7.2 µm indicated a positive correlation between the mass median aerodynamic diameter and log P L° for the less brominated congeners, whereas a negative correlation was observed for the high brominated congeners. The potential source regions of PBDEs were acknowledged as a combination of long-range transport with short-distance sources.