Plastic pollution on the world's coral reefs.

Coral reefs are losing the capacity to sustain their biological functions1. In addition to other well-known stressors, such as climatic change and overfishing1, plastic pollution is an emerging threat to coral reefs, spreading throughout reef food webs2, and increasing disease transmission and structural damage to reef organisms3. Although recognized as a global concern4, the distribution and quantity of plastics trapped in the world's coral reefs remains uncertain3. Here we survey 84 shallow and deep coral ecosystems at 25 locations across the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian ocean basins for anthropogenic macrodebris (pollution by human-generated objects larger than 5 centimetres, including plastics), performing 1,231 transects. Our results show anthropogenic debris in 77 out of the 84 reefs surveyed, including in some of Earth's most remote and near-pristine reefs, such as in uninhabited central Pacific atolls. Macroplastics represent 88% of the anthropogenic debris, and, like other debris types, peak in deeper reefs (mesophotic zones at 30-150 metres depth), with fishing activities as the main source of plastics in most areas. These findings contrast with the global pattern observed in other nearshore marine ecosystems, where macroplastic densities decrease with depth and are dominated by consumer items5. As the world moves towards a global treaty to tackle plastic pollution6, understanding its distribution and drivers provides key information to help to design the strategies needed to address this ubiquitous threat.

Moving conferences online: lessons learned from an international virtual meeting.

We consider the opportunities and challenges associated with organizing a conference online, using a case study of a medium-sized (approx. 400 participants) international conference held virtually in August 2020. In addition, we present quantifiable evidence of the participants' experience using the results from an online post-conference questionnaire. Although the virtual meeting was not able to replicate the in-person experience in some aspects (e.g. less engagement between participants) the overwhelming majority of respondents found the meeting an enjoyable experience and would join similar events again. Notably, there was a strong desire for future in-person meetings to have at least some online component. Online attendance by lower-income researchers was higher compared with a past, similar-themed in-person meeting held in a high-income nation, but comparable to one held in an upper-middle-income nation. This indicates that online conferences are not a panacea for diversity and inclusivity, and that holding in-person meetings in developing economies can be at least as effective. Given that it is now relatively easy to stream contents of meetings online using low-cost methods, there are clear benefits in making all presented content accessible online, as well as organizing online networking events for those unable to attend in person.

Co-development, co-production and co-dissemination of scientific research: a case study to demonstrate mutual benefits.

Inadequate and inequitable distribution of research capacity and resources limits both the opportunity for leadership and participation in science. It also results in biases of effort, poor and misinterpretation of global patterns and the availability of limited usable knowledge for current challenges. Increased participation in ocean research and decision-making is needed to account for many stressors and challenges. The current intergovernmental attention on the ocean (e.g. UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development) and the development of technologies that permit exploration and accelerate exploitation suggest that it is timely to focus on the ocean and its stewardship. Employing the principles of co-development, co-production and co-dissemination, this paper uses a case study of a deep reef project in Seychelles to illustrate some activities that can be employed to magnify research outcomes and legacy. We provide examples that range from ministerial briefings and planning meetings to joint fieldwork, grant allocation and co-authoring outputs. These activities helped us to align priorities, promote authentic interactions and focus on equitable science. Finally, reflecting on our experiences, we acknowledge the benefits brought by respectful and long-term partnerships, the variety of activities needed to develop these and challenges of maintaining them. In the future, we also want to include more opportunities for regional peer-to-peer learning and technology transfer.

An underwater imagery identification guide for shallow, mesophotic and deep-sea benthos in Maldives.

Background: During the 2022 Nekton Maldives Mission, we deployed a variety of platforms (snorkelling, remotely-operated vehicles and manned submersibles) to conduct video surveys of the biodiversity and composition of shallow (< 30 m), mesophotic (30-150 m) and deep-sea (> 150 m) benthos found in the Maldives' central and southern atolls. In total, ~ 80 hrs of stereo-video footage were collected during the benthic transect surveys, which were subsequently processed using annotation software in order to evaluate benthic biodiversity and community composition. Here, we present a photographic guide for the visual, in situ identification of reef benthos encountered, including corals, sponges and other invertebrates that inhabit Maldives' nearshore habitats. We hope that this identification guide will aid future imagery-based surveys or observations of organisms during fieldwork. New information: A total of 283 morphotypes were identified, including those belonging to Octocorallia (61), Scleractinia (57), Porifera (38), Asteroidea (22), Antipatharia (15), Decapoda (13), Hydrozoa (12), Holothuroidea (10), Actiniaria (9), Echinoidea (8), Annelida (6), Chlorophyta (5), Gastropoda (4), Bivalvia (4), Ascidiacea (3), Crinoidea (3), Bryozoa (2), Cyanobacteria (2), Zoantharia (2), Cephalopoda (1), Ceriantharia (1), Corallimorpharia (1), Ctenophora (1), Ophiuroidea (1), Rhodophyta (1) and to an unknown category (1). Out of these, we identified 40 to species level, 120 to genus, 47 to family, 14 to order and suborder, 58 to class and subclass, two to phylum and one was of unknown phylum. This represents the first attempt to catalogue the mesophotic and deep-sea benthic megafaunal diversity in the Maldives using underwater imagery.

Trait-based approaches reveal that deep reef ecosystems in the Western Indian Ocean are functionally distinct.

Tropical deep reefs (>30 m) are biologically and ecologically unique ecosystems with a higher geographic reach to shallow (<30 m) reefs. Yet they are poorly understood and rarely considered in conservation practices. Here, we characterise benthic and fish communities across a depth gradient (10-350 m) in remote coral atolls in Seychelles, Western Indian Ocean. Using taxonomic and trait-based approaches we present the taxonomic and functional composition of shallow and deep reef communities, with distinct communities and traits dominating different depths. Depth-related changes in community metrics (taxa richness, abundance and biomass) and functional diversity metrics (richness, dispersion, and evenness) indicate complex relationships across different biological components (fish, benthos) that differ between shallow and deep reefs. These in turn translate into different patterns of reef resilience against disturbance or species invasions with depth. Notably, deep reefs host on average fewer and less abundant taxa but with higher functional contribution and originality scores, some of which are of conservation concern. Overall, the results highlight the unique nature of deep reefs that requires their explicit consideration in conservation and management activities.

Turning the tide of parachute science.

Parachute science is the practice whereby international scientists, typically from higher-income countries, conduct field studies in another country, typically of lower income, and then complete the research in their home country without any further effective communication and engagement with others from that nation. It creates dependency on external expertise, does not address local research needs, and hinders local research efforts. As global hotspots of marine biodiversity, lower-income nations in the tropics have for too long been the subject of inequitable and unfair research practices1. However, to date there has been little quantifiable evidence of this phenomenon in marine science. Here, we provide evidence through systematic literature searches and queries that parachute science practices are still widespread in marine research and make some recommendations to help change the current status quo. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Reef benthos of Seychelles - A field guide.

BACKGROUND: During the 2019 First Descent: Seychelles Expedition, shallow and deep reef ecosystems of the Seychelles Outer Islands were studied by deploying a variety of underwater technologies to survey their benthic flora and fauna. Submersibles, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and SCUBA diving teams used stereo-video camera systems to record benthic communities during transect surveys conducted at 10 m, 30 m, 60 m, 120 m, 250 m and 350 m depths. In total, ~ 45 h of video footage was collected during benthic transect surveys, which was subsequently processed using annotation software in order to assess reef biodiversity and community composition. Here, we present a photographic guide for the visual identification of the marine macrophytes, corals, sponges and other common invertebrates that inhabit Seychelles' reefs. It is hoped that the resulting guide will aid marine biologists, conservationists, managers, divers and naturalists with the coarse identification of organisms as seen in underwater footage or live in the field. NEW INFORMATION: A total of 184 morphotypes (= morphologically similar individuals) were identified belonging to Octocorallia (47), Porifera (35), Scleractinia (32), Asteroidea (19), Echinoidea (10), Actiniaria (9), Chlorophyta (8), Antipatharia (6), Hydrozoa (6), Holothuroidea (5), Mollusca (2), Rhodophyta (2), Tracheophyta (2), Annelida (1), Crinoidea (1), Ctenophora (1), Ochrophyta (1) and Zoantharia (1). Out of these, we identified one to phylum level, eight to class, 14 to order, 27 to family, 110 to genus and 24 to species. This represents the first attempt to catalogue the benthic diversity from shallow reefs and up to 350 m depth in Seychelles.

Changes in zooplankton communities from epipelagic to lower mesopelagic waters.

Zooplankton form a trophic link between primary producers and higher trophic levels, and exert significant influence on the vertical transport of carbon through the water column ('biological carbon pump'). Using a MultiNet we sampled and studied mesozooplankton communities (i.e. >0.2 mm) from six locations around Bermuda targeting four depth zones: ∼0-200 m, ∼200-400 m, ∼400-600 m (deep-scattering layer), and ∼600-800 m. Copepoda, our focal taxonomic group, consistently dominated samples (∼80% relative abundance). We report declines in zooplankton and copepod abundance with depth, concurrent with decreases in food availability. Taxonomic richness was lowest at depth and below the deep-scattering layer. In contrast, copepod diversity peaked at these depths, suggesting lower competitive displacement in these more food-limited waters. Finally, omnivory and carnivory, were the dominant trophic traits, each one affecting the biological carbon pump in a different way. This highlights the importance of incorporating data on zooplankton food web structure in future modelling of global ocean carbon cycling.

Low connectivity between shallow, mesophotic and rariphotic zone benthos.

Worldwide coral reefs face catastrophic damage due to a series of anthropogenic stressors. Investigating how coral reefs ecosystems are connected, in particular across depth, will help us understand if deeper reefs harbour distinct communities. Here, we explore changes in benthic community structure across 15-300 m depths using technical divers and submersibles around Bermuda. We report high levels of floral and faunal differentiation across depth, with distinct assemblages occupying each depth surveyed, except 200-300 m, corresponding to the lower rariphotic zone. Community turnover was highest at the boundary depths of mesophotic coral ecosystems (30-150 m) driven largely by taxonomic turnover and to a lesser degree by ordered species loss (nestedness). Our work highlights the biologically unique nature of benthic communities in the mesophotic and rariphotic zones, and their limited connectivity to shallow reefs, thus emphasizing the need to manage and protect deeper reefs as distinct entities.

A framework for the development of a global standardised marine taxon reference image database (SMarTaR-ID) to support image-based analyses.

Video and image data are regularly used in the field of benthic ecology to document biodiversity. However, their use is subject to a number of challenges, principally the identification of taxa within the images without associated physical specimens. The challenge of applying traditional taxonomic keys to the identification of fauna from images has led to the development of personal, group, or institution level reference image catalogues of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) or morphospecies. Lack of standardisation among these reference catalogues has led to problems with observer bias and the inability to combine datasets across studies. In addition, lack of a common reference standard is stifling efforts in the application of artificial intelligence to taxon identification. Using the North Atlantic deep sea as a case study, we propose a database structure to facilitate standardisation of morphospecies image catalogues between research groups and support future use in multiple front-end applications. We also propose a framework for coordination of international efforts to develop reference guides for the identification of marine species from images. The proposed structure maps to the Darwin Core standard to allow integration with existing databases. We suggest a management framework where high-level taxonomic groups are curated by a regional team, consisting of both end users and taxonomic experts. We identify a mechanism by which overall quality of data within a common reference guide could be raised over the next decade. Finally, we discuss the role of a common reference standard in advancing marine ecology and supporting sustainable use of this ecosystem.

Plastic in the Thames: a river runs through it.

Although contamination of the marine ecosystems by plastics is becoming recognised as a serious pollution problem, there are few studies that demonstrate the contribution made by freshwater catchments. Over a three month period from September to December 2012, at seven localities in the upper Thames estuary, 8490 submerged plastic items were intercepted in eel fyke nets anchored to the river bed. Whilst there were significant differences in the numbers of items at these locations, the majority were some type of plastic. Additionally in excess of 20% of the litter items were components of sanitary products. The most contaminated sites were in the vicinity of sewage treatment works. While floating litter is visible, this study also demonstrates that a large unseen volume of submerged plastic is flowing into the marine environment. It is therefore important that this sub-surface component is considered when assessing plastic pollution input into the sea.