Twelve tips for establishing a new medical school.

Many new medical programs have been established during the last 20 years, and this trend seems set to continue as the health care needs of the world's populations become more complex and demand increases for more physicians to provide the necessary health care. In this paper, we address how best to establish a new medical school, based on our experiences in new ventures in several countries. Success requires a combination of boldness of vision, support from many stakeholder groups, adequate financial and human resources, educational expertise, confidence, patience, and persistence.

A critical hybrid realist-outcomes systematic review of relationships between medical education programmes and communities: BEME Guide No. 35.

BACKGROUND: The relationships between medical schools and communities have long inspired and troubled medical education programmes. Successive models of community-oriented, community-based and community-engaged medical education have promised much and delivered to varying degrees. A two-armed realist systematic review was undertaken to explore and synthesize the evidence on medical school-community relationships. METHOD: One arm used standard outcomes criteria (Kirkpatrick levels), the other a realist approach seeking out the underlying contexts, mechanisms and outcomes. 38 reviewers completed 489 realist reviews and 271 outcomes reviews; 334 articles were reviewed in the realist arm and 181 in the outcomes arm. Analyses were based on: descriptive statistics on both articles and reviews; the outcomes involved; the quality of the evidence presented; realist contexts, mechanisms, and outcomes; and an analysis of underlying discursive themes. FINDINGS: The literature on medical school-community relationships is heterogeneous and largely idiographic, with no common standards for what a community is, who represents communities, what a relationship is based on, or whose needs are or should be being addressed or considered. CONCLUSIONS: Community relationships can benefit medical education, even if it is not always clear why or how. There is much opportunity to improve the quality and precision of scholarship in this area.

Clinical Relevance of Computed Tomography Pulmonary Venography.

BACKGROUND: In clinical routine, the pulmonary contrast-enhanced chest computer tomography (CT) is usually focussed on the pulmonary arteries. The purpose of this pictorial essay is to raise the clinicians' awareness for the clinical relevance of CT pulmonary venography. CASE PRESENTATION: A pictorial case series illustrates the clinical consequences of different pulmonary venous pathologies on systemic, pulmonary and bronchial circulation. CONCLUSION: Computed tomography pulmonary venography must be considered before atrial septal defect (ASD) closure and pulmonary lobectomy. Computed tomography pulmonary venography should be considered for patients with right ventricular overload and pulmonary hypertension, as well as for patients with unclear recurrent pulmonary infections, progressive dyspnoea, pleural effusions, haemoptysis, and for patients with respiratory distress after lung-transplantation.

Increased gene expression of the cardiac endothelin system in obese mice.

Obesity is a well-known risk factor of atherosclerosis and heart failure. In the human heart, a local endothelin system containing prepro-endothelin-1, endothelin-converting enzyme-1, and endothelin receptors A and B has been described. The endothelin system is activated in heart failure; however, the impact of obesity on the cardiac endothelin system is unknown. In this study, 18-week-old male C57BL/6 mice fed either a control diet or a high-fat diet for 10 weeks were analyzed. High-fat diet significantly increased the body weight of the animals and augmented low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, and cholesterol plasma levels, compared to control. The animal groups showed no significant differences in left ventricular size or function (heart rate, ejection fraction, fractional shortening, left ventricular posterior wall thickness, cardiac output) after control or high-fat diet. We did not observe signs of cardiac hypertrophy or changes in markers of cardiac fibrosis in these heart samples. The cardiac expression of prepro-endothelin-1 mRNA, endothelin-converting enzyme-1 mRNA, and protein and endothelin receptors A and B mRNA was increased in 18-week-old obese C57BL/6 mice compared to animals with normal weight (p<0.05 vs. control). Furthermore, endothelin-1 plasma levels showed an increasing trend. In conclusion, an increased expression of genes of the endothelin system was observed in the hearts of 18-week-old mice after high-fat diet, possibly contributing to later cardiovascular complications of obesity.

Evaluation and classification of right ventricular wall motion abnormalities in healthy subjects by 3-tesla cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging.

BACKGROUND: Right ventricular (RV) shape and function serves as an indicator in several types of heart disease such as arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD). However, there is no in-depth knowledge of RV motion, even in healthy subjects. The aim of our study was to provide a quantitative analysis of normal variations in RV wall motion in healthy subjects by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI). MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study population consisted of 65 consecutive patients referred for the evaluation of cardiac function by 3 Tesla CMR. Balanced steady-state free-precession images were obtained and areas of disordered RV wall motion were evaluated and classified based on a standardised segmental model for the right ventricle. RESULTS: In 59 patients (90.8 %) wall motion abnormalities (WMA) of the right ventricle were evident. WMA were predominately detected in the apicolateral segments (72 %) compared with mediolateral (24 %, P < 0.001) and inferolateral segments (4 %, P < 0.001). Dyskinesia was the most frequent wall motion disorder (62.4 %), followed by hypokinesia (20.8 %) and bulging (16.8 %). The mean WMA diameter in the transverse plane (6.4 ± 1.9 mm) was significantly shorter compared with the diameter in the horizontal long-axis (8.1 ± 3.6 mm, P = 0.002) and short-axis plane (10.7 ± 4.6 mm). CONCLUSION: WMA of the right ventricle are common. Therefore, one should be aware that these nonpathological wall motion disorders can easily be mistaken for a pathological regional wall motion contraction, particularly in ARVD where to date, clear wall motion criteria are lacking.

Elevated cardiac troponin T indicating myocardial infarction or myocarditis-urgent cardiac catheter examination-or do we have to consider other reasons?

Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma is an aggressive tumour in adulthood, in which cardiac troponin T seems to be a tumour marker and course parameter. We present the clinical course of a young man suffering from this rare disease and the development of troponin T during therapy. Noninvasive cardiac imaging was used to exclude cardiac involvement, myocardial infarction or inflammation processes.

Intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) counterpulsation improves cerebral perfusion in patients with decreased left ventricular function.

BACKGROUND: The current goal of treatment after acute ischemic stroke is the increase of cerebral blood flow (CBF) in ischemic brain tissue. Intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) counterpulsation in the setting of cardiogenic shock is able to reduce left ventricular afterload and increase coronary blood flow. The effects of an IABP on CBF have not been sufficiently examined. We hypothesize that the use of an IABP especially enhances cerebral blood flow in patients with pre-existing heart failure. METHODS: In this pilot study, 36 subjects were examined to investigate the effect of an IABP on middle cerebral artery (MCA) transcranial Doppler (TCD) flow velocity change and relative CBF augmentation by determining velocity time integral changes (ΔVTI) in a constant caliber of the MCA compared to a baseline measurement without an IABP. Subjects were divided into two groups according to their left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF): Group 1 LVEF >30% and Group 2 LVEF ≤30%. RESULTS: Both groups showed an increase in CBF using an IABP. Patients with a LVEF ≤30% showed a significantly higher increase of ΔVTI in the MCA under IABP augmentation compared to patients with a LVEF >30% (20.9% ± 3.9% Group 2 vs.10.5% ± 2.2% Group 1, p<0,05). The mean arterial pressure (MAP) increased only marginally in both groups under IABP augmentation. CONCLUSIONS: IABP improves cerebral blood flow, particularly in patients with pre-existing heart failure and highly impaired LVEF. Hence, an IABP might be a treatment option to improve cerebral perfusion in selected patients with cerebral misperfusion and simultaneously existing severe heart failure.

Implantable cardioverter defibrillator lead implantation in patients with a persistent left superior vena cava--feasibility, chances, and limitations: representative cases in adults.

AIMS: Device implantation may be challenging in patients with venous abnormalities. The most common congenital variation--frequently associated with other congenital abnormalities--is described as persistent left superior vena cava (PLSVC). METHODS AND RESULTS: The present case series demonstrates successful implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) lead implantation in the most common anatomic variations of PLSVC. All types of current ICD models (single and dual chamber, VDD, and cardiac resynchronization therapy devices) were used. Angiographic findings and implantation techniques (e.g. guiding and diagnostic catheters, wires, occlusion balloons, and rotation sequences) are presented in images and movie sequences. CONCLUSION: Device implantation in patients with PLSVC may be complex but a successful transvenous approach is possible in most of the cases. Careful imaging prior to implantation procedure is essential for understanding the individual anatomy and in order to choose adequate material and implantation strategy.

Latent pulmonary hypertension in atrial septal defect: Dynamic stress echocardiography reveals unapparent pulmonary hypertension and confirms rapid normalisation after ASD closure.

OBJECTIVE: Closure of atrial septal defects (ASD) prevents pulmonary hypertension, right heart failure and thromboembolic stroke. The exact timing for ASD closure is controversial. METHODS: In a prospective study to address the question whether unapparent pulmonary hypertension can be revealed prior to right ventricular (RV) remodelling, patients were investigated before and 6, 12, and 24 months after ASD closure using exercise stress echocardiography (ESE) and ergospirometry (n = 24). RESULTS: At rest, RV systolic pressure (RVSP) was normal in 58.8 %, slightly elevated in 26.5 %, and moderately elevated in 11.8 %. One patient showed severe pulmonary hypertension. During ESE, all patients with normal RVSP at rest exhibited an increase (25.7 ± 1.2 mmHg vs. 45.3 ± 2.3 mmHg, p < 0.001). After closure the RVSP was lower, both at rest and ESE. RV diameters decreased too. Tricuspid annulus plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) at rest remained lower after closure (24.0 ± 0.9 vs. 22.0 ± 0.9 mm, p < 0.05). TAPSE in ESE was elevated, and stayed stable after closure (30.1 ± 1.8 mm vs. 29.3 ± 1.6 mm). Before closure, RV systolic tissue velocities (s(a)) at rest were normal and decreased after closure (14.0 ± 1.0 cm/s vs. 11.5 ± 0.7 (6 month) vs. 10.6 ± 0.5 cm/s (12 month), p < 0.05). During ESE, s(a) velocity was similar before and after closure (23.0 ± 1.3 cm/s vs. 23.3 ± 1.9 cm/s). Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2/kg) did not differ between baseline and follow-ups. CONCLUSION: Latent pulmonary hypertension may become apparent in ESE. ASD closure leads to a significant reduction in this stress-induced pulmonary hypertension and to a decrease in the right heart diameters indicating reverse RV remodelling. RV functional parameters at rest did not improve. The VO2/kg did not change after ASD closure.

Pre-hospital discharge testing after implantable cardioverter defibrillator implantation: a measure of safety or out of date? A retrospective analysis of 975 patients.

AIMS: The present study evaluates the relevance and additional safety value of pre-hospital discharge (PHD) testing in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) therapy. METHODS: From June 1998 to May 2009, 975 patients (830 male, 145 female) with ICD were screened retrospectively for failed PHD and analysed for its consequences, risk factors, and patient characteristics after successful intra-operative testing in the implantation procedure. RESULTS: Pre-hospital discharge testing procedure was performed in 809 cases. No serious adverse events (e.g. death, persistant ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia, stroke) occurred. The overall incidence of failed PHD was 1.4% (n = 11). The underlying mechanisms were defibrillation threshold failure in 9/11 cases and sensing failure in 2/11 cases. CONCLUSIONS: In this study predictors for PHD-failure are: (i) cardiomyopathy other than ischaemic or dilative, (ii) young age, and (iii) small or very large left ventricular end-diastolic diameter ( < 40 or > 65 mm). Particularly, (i) manufacture of device or leads, (ii) lead design, (iii) medical treatment, or (iv) gender have no significant influence on PHD failure.

Thinking outside the box: Aboriginal people's suggestions for conducting health studies with Aboriginal communities.

OBJECTIVES: Aboriginal people are under-represented in epidemiological research, largely due to past failures to engage and recruit Aboriginal communities, research fatigue and the use of culturally inappropriate methods. A qualitative study was undertaken in rural and urban Aboriginal communities in north-eastern and south-western Ontario to identify culturally congruent public health research methodologies. STUDY DESIGN: A qualitative participatory research study using focus group discussions. METHODS: This study employed a participatory research framework to elicit methodological suggestions for conducting public health research with Aboriginal communities during focus groups with healthcare providers from six diverse Aboriginal health organizations in Ontario, Canada. RESULTS: Continuing requests for participation in health research studies have led to community exhaustion. Discussions explored appropriate methods to obtain community approval and support for a study, the need for cultural sensitivity training for researchers, the value of conducting studies of interest and benefit to the community, advantages and disadvantages of qualitative and quantitative studies, the benefit of both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal ethics reviews, the importance of safeguarding trusted information, types of incentives that may enhance study participation, suggestions to improve the collection of questionnaire information and biological specimens, how to resolve contentious issues and dissemination of study results. CONCLUSION: In order to successfully engage Aboriginal people in health studies, researchers need to build rapport with communities, have a community presence, be respectful and collaborative, utilize incentives, and employ flexible and adaptive methodologies of reasonable length. Oral interviews are preferred to self-completed information. The use of more mixed methods methodologies was suggested when quantitative data collection is necessary. Communities expect presentations about research findings.

[19-year-old asthma patient with pronounced eosinophilia and acute coronary syndrome]. / 19-jähriger Asthmatiker mit ausgeprägter Eosinophilie und akutem Koronarsyndrom.

Diagnosis of Churg-Strauss syndrome should be considered in young asthmatics with fatigue and eosinophilia. On the base of the etiopathology of a 19-year old man, who was initially admitted because of dyspnoea, fever and acute chest pain, we show that eosinophilia gives an important hint for further diagnostic and is the key trend parameter. Histologically an eosinophilic myocarditis could be shown in the myocardial biopsy. High dose prednisolone induced a clear improvement in symptoms, with decrease of the inflammatory signs and the eosinophilia and a clear improvement of the left ventricular function.

Increased P2X7R expression in atrial cardiomyocytes of caveolin-1 deficient mice.

It has recently been shown in epithelial cells that the ATP-gated ion channel P2X7R is in part, associated with caveolae and colocalized with caveolin-1. In the present study of the mouse heart, we show for the first time, using immunohistochemistry and cryoimmunoelectron microscopy, that P2X7R is expressed in atrial cardiomyocytes and in cardiac microvascular endothelial cells, but not in the ventricle cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, biochemical data indicate the presence of two forms of P2X7R, the classical glycosylated 80 kDa isoform and a protein with the molecular weight of 56 kDa, in both cardiomyocytes and endothelial cells of the mouse heart. The functionality of both proteins in heart cells is still unclear. In cardiac tissue homogenates derived from caveolin-1 deficient mice (cav-1(-/-)), an increase of the P2Xrx7 mRNA and P2X7R protein (80 kDa) was found, particularly in atrial samples. In addition, P2rx7(-/-) mice showed enhanced protein levels of caveolin-1 in their atrial tissues. Although the details of cellular mechanisms that underlie the relationship between caveolin-1 and P2X7R in atrial cardiomyocytes and the electrophysiological consequences of the increased P2X7R expression in atrial cells of cav-1(-/-) mice remain to be elucidated, the cardiomyopathy detectable in cav-1(-/-) mice is possibly related to a disturbed crosstalk between P2X7R and caveolin-1 in different heart cell populations.

Community engagement in general practice: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND Community engagement is believed to be an important component of quality primary health care. We aimed to capture specific examples of community engagement by general practices, and to understand the barriers that prevent engagement. METHODS We conducted 20 distinct interviews with 31 key informants from general practice and the wider community. The interviews were semi-structured around key relevant topics and were analysed thematically. RESULTS Key themes identified from the interview transcripts included an understanding of 'community', examples of community engagement and the perceived benefits and barriers to community-engaged general practice. We particularly explored aspects of community engagement with Maori. CONCLUSIONS General practices in the study do not think in terms of communities, and they do not have a systematic framework for engagement. Although local champions have generated some great initiatives, most practices seemed to lack a conceptual framework for engagement: who to engage with, how to engage with them, and how to evaluate the results of the engagement.

Receptor-independent sensitization of the adenylyl cylase after chronic treatment with cyclosporine A.

Chronic treatment with cyclosporine A (CyA) is often complicated by severe hypertension. If activation of the beta-adrenergic-receptor-linked adenylyl cyclase (AC) system contributes to hypertension is unresolved. Rats were treated with CyA (20 mg kg(-1) day(-1)) for 7 days. beta-adrenergic, muscarinic, and alpha-adrenergic receptors, G-proteins, and the activity of AC were determined in cardiac and pulmonary plasma membranes. The density of cardiac beta-adrenergic receptors, muscarinic receptors, alpha-adrenergic receptors, G(alphas) and, G(alphai) remained unchanged after treatment with CyA. However, CyA increased the responsiveness of AC to different stimulators. The responsiveness of AC was even more pronounced after solubilization and partial purification, suggesting a direct modulation of the enzyme. These data suggest that CyA modulates the activity of the sympathoadrenergic system by a direct, receptor-independent sensitization of AC, suggesting that this pathway contributes to hypertension in patients treated with CyA.

NT-proBNP correlates with right heart haemodynamic parameters and volumes in patients with atrial septal defects.

BACKGROUND: To investigate the role of N-terminal pro-BNP (NT-proBNP) for the estimation of right heart failure and pulmonary pressure in patients with atrial septal defects (ASD) before and after percutaneous defect closure. METHODS: We performed correlation analysis for NT-proBNP and right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) as well as right ventricular enddiastolic and endsystolic volume (RVEDV, RVESV) determined by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) before and up to one year following ASD closure. Additionally NT-proBNP concentrations were correlated with right atrial (RA) and RV enddiastolic pressure (RVEDP), ASD size and interatrial left-to-right shunt. RESULTS: Baseline RVSP was 33+/-8 mmHg, which decreased significantly during follow-up. Initially, NT-proBNP levels were 240+/-93 pg/ml. After closure, a reduction to 116+/-62 pg/ml was obvious (p<0.01). Baseline MRI showed enlarged RV volumes in all individuals. At six and twelve months follow-up a significant reduction of RVEDV and RVESV was apparent. A positive correlation was noted between RV volumes and NT-proBNP (r=0.65, p<0.05). Furthermore RA pressure, RVEDP, RVSP and left-to-right shunt significantly correlated to peptide levels. No correlation was seen between ASD size and NT-proBNP. CONCLUSION: NT-proBNP correlates to right ventricular dilatation, pulmonary pressure and left-to-right shunt in volume load of the right heart caused by an underlying ASD.

A comparison of the tolerability of the direct renin inhibitor aliskiren and lisinopril in patients with severe hypertension.

Patients with severe hypertension (>180/110 mm Hg) require large blood pressure (BP) reductions to reach recommended treatment goals (<140/90 mm Hg) and usually require combination therapy to do so. This 8-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group study compared the tolerability and antihypertensive efficacy of the novel direct renin inhibitor aliskiren with the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor lisinopril in patients with severe hypertension (mean sitting diastolic blood pressure (msDBP)>or=105 mm Hg and <120 mm Hg). In all, 183 patients were randomized (2:1) to aliskiren 150 mg (n=125) or lisinopril 20 mg (n=58) with dose titration (to aliskiren 300 mg or lisinopril 40 mg) and subsequent addition of hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) if additional BP control was required. Aliskiren-based treatment (ALI) was similar to lisinopril-based treatment (LIS) with respect to the proportion of patients reporting an adverse event (AE; ALI 32.8%; LIS 29.3%) or discontinuing treatment due to AEs (ALI 3.2%; LIS 3.4%). The most frequently reported AEs in both groups were headache, nasopharyngitis and dizziness. At end point, ALI showed similar mean reductions from baseline to LIS in msDBP (ALI -18.5 mm Hg vs LIS -20.1 mm Hg; mean treatment difference 1.7 mm Hg (95% confidence interval (CI) -1.0, 4.4)) and mean sitting systolic blood pressure (ALI -20.0 mm Hg vs LIS -22.3 mm Hg; mean treatment difference 2.8 mm Hg (95% CI -1.7, 7.4)). Responder rates (msDBP<90 mm Hg and/or reduction from baseline>or=10 mm Hg) were 81.5% with ALI and 87.9% with LIS. Approximately half of patients required the addition of HCTZ to achieve BP control (ALI 53.6%; LIS 44.8%). In conclusion, ALI alone, or in combination with HCTZ, exhibits similar tolerability and antihypertensive efficacy to LIS alone, or in combination with HCTZ, in patients with severe hypertension.

Ventricular oversensing in 518 patients with implanted cardiac defibrillators: incidence, complications, and solutions.

The present study evaluates the incidence of various complications in implanted cardiac defibrillators (ICD) therapy due to ventricular oversensing (VO) and its complications. From June 1998 to May 2005, we retrospectively screened 518 patients (1085.6 patient years) for the occurrence of VO episodes (441 male, 77 female). The overall incidence was 7.3% (n = 38) with inappropriate shock deliveries accounting for 2.3% (n = 12). All VO episodes were caused by either T-wave oversensing (n = 10), myopotentials (n = 8), electrode failure (n = 5), interference with electromagnetic fields (n = 3), double-counting (n = 4), pacemaker interactions (n = 2), or others (n = 2). There were five life-threatening events due to inappropriate ICD reaction. In eight (22%) cases, ICD reprogramming was able to avoid further oversensing episodes (e.g. adaptation of sensitivity, T-wave suppression feature), 13 (35%) patients had to undergo invasive procedures (e.g. electrode replacing) to suppress VO, 16 (43%) were told to avoid the trigger situation, and one demanded to deactivate all ICD therapies because of inappropriate shock delivery. Our data demonstrate that VO is a rare complication, but might lead to life-threatening events. In most cases, VO episodes could be prevented by appropriate ICD reprogramming or avoidance of the initiating trigger.

Failure of ascorbic acid to prevent contrast-media induced nephropathy in patients with renal dysfunction.

AIMS: Contrast-media induced nephropathy (CIN) remains a common complication after contrast dye exposure especially in patients with chronic renal impairment (CRI). We sought to evaluate the efficacy of the antioxidant ascorbic acid as an adjunct to hydration in limiting the incidence of contrast induced nephrotoxicity after coronary procedures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind, prospective, single center-study, 143 consecutive patients with CRI (creatinine level > 120 micromol/l) referred to coronary angiography/intervention were randomly assigned to receive 1 g ascorbic acid or placebo in adjunct to saline hydration prior to and after angiography. Creatinine and urea nitrogen levels were measured prior to and up to 6 days after exposure to contrast agent. RESULTS: The development of CIN occurred totally in 8/143 (5.6%) patients. Between the two groups no significant difference was detected (Vitamin C 5/74 (6.8%) patients; placebo 3/69 (4.3%) patients). After adjusting for the amount of contrast dye, drug treatment, cardiovascular risk factors, ejection fraction, or sex, again no differences were detected. No patient required dialysis. More patients with diabetes had development of CIN (7/85; 8.2%) compared with nondiabetic patients (1/58; 1.7%), although not significant (p = 0.14). The incidence of CIN was elevated in patients with high amounts (> 140 ml) of contrast volume used (6/8). CONCLUSIONS: Our study does not support the prophylactic use of ascorbic acid in patients with renal dysfunction exposed to contrast dye.