An outbreak of systemic chlamydiosis in farmed American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis).

Chlamydia spp are reported to causes systemic disease in a variety of hosts worldwide including few reports in crocodilians. Disease presentations vary from asymptomatic to fulminant disease, some of which are zoonotic. The aim of this study was to describe the pathological, immunohistochemical, and molecular findings associated with the occurrence of a previously unreported Chlamydia sp infection causing a major mortality event in farmed American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). The outbreak presented with sudden death in juvenile alligators mainly associated with necrotizing hepatitis and myocarditis, followed by the occurrence of conjunctivitis after the initial high mortality event. The widespread inflammatory lesions in multiple organs correlated with intralesional chlamydial organisms identified via immunohistochemistry and confirmed by 23S rRNA-specific real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for Chlamydiaceae bacteria. By sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the OmpA gene, this uncultured Chlamydia sp grouped closely with Chlamydia poikilothermis recently described in snakes. This study highlights the significance of such outbreaks in farmed populations. Enhanced epidemiological monitoring is needed to gain further insight into the biology of Chlamydia sp in alligators, disease dynamics, risk factors, and role of carrier animals.

Streptococcus dysgalactiae: A Pathogen of Feral Populations of Silver Carp from a Fish Kill Event.

In August 2018, a series of large fish kills involving only Silver Carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix occurred on the Mississippi River in northern Louisiana. Clinical signs observed in moribund animals included erratic swimming behavior, such as spiraling and spinning at the surface. A moribund specimen was captured by dip net near the surface at Lake Providence Landing in East Carroll Parish, northern Louisiana, and was submitted for analysis. An aseptic necropsy was performed, and diagnostic procedures, including bacteriology, parasitology, histopathology, virology, and electron microscopy, revealed that a gram-positive coccus was the primary pathogen. Pure cultures of the organism were obtained from the brain, and it was the predominant colony type isolated from the spleen, kidney, and liver. Bacterial sepsis caused by the gram-positive coccus and involving multiple organ systems was diagnosed histologically. Bacterial colonization and necrotic lesions were seen in the spleen, liver, kidney, heart, eye, and brain. Numerous cocci were observed dividing intracellularly in phagocytic cells of the kidney and brain by transmission electron microscopy. The organism was identified as Streptococcus dysgalactiae ssp. dysgalactiae by conventional biochemical methods and subsequently by the API 20 Strep system. The identity of the pathogen was later confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene. Multilocus sequence analysis clustered this isolate along with two other S. dysgalactiae isolates from fish in a divergent phyletic group that was separate from other S. dysgalactiae ssp. dysgalactiae isolates from terrestrial animals, implying a possible novel clade that is pathogenic for fish.

Development and Validation of a Panel of One-Step Four-Plex qPCR/RT-qPCR Assays for Simultaneous Detection of SARS-CoV-2 and Other Pathogens Associated with Canine Infectious Respiratory Disease Complex.

Canine infectious respiratory disease complex (CIRDC) is the primary cause of respiratory disease in the canine population and is caused by a wide array of viruses and bacterial pathogens with coinfections being common. Since its recognition in late 2019, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been reported to cause respiratory disease in dogs. Therefore, the rapid detection and differentiation of SARS-CoV-2 from other common viral and bacterial agents is critical from a public health standpoint. Here, we developed and validated a panel of four one-step multiplex qPCR/RT-qPCR assays for the detection and identification of twelve pathogens associated with CIRDC (canine adenovirus-2, canine distemper virus, canine herpesvirus-1, canine influenza A virus, canine parainfluenza virus, canine pneumovirus, canine respiratory coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus, Mycoplasma cynos, and M. canis), as well as the identification of three main CIV subtypes (i.e., H3N2, H3N8, and H1N1). All developed assays demonstrated high specificity and analytical sensitivity. This panel was used to test clinical specimens (n = 76) from CIRDC-suspected dogs. M. canis, M. cynos, and CRCoV were the most frequently identified pathogens (30.3%, 25.0%, and 19.7% of samples, respectively). The newly emerging pathogens CPnV and SARS-CoV-2 were detected in 5.3% of samples and coinfections were identified in 30.3%. This new multiplex qPCR/RT-qPCR panel is the most comprehensive panel developed thus far for identifying CIRDC pathogens, along with SARS-CoV-2.

Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect chicken parvovirus-specific antibodies.

Here we report the development and application of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect parvovirus-specific antibodies in chicken sera. We used an approach previously described for other parvoviruses to clone and express viral structural proteins in insect cells from recombinant baculovirus vectors. In baculovirus recombinant-infected Sf9 cells, the chicken parvovirus (ChPV) structural viral protein 2 (VP2) was detected as an abundant protein, and the 60-kDa VP2 strongly reacted with parvovirus-infected chicken serum in Western blot. A semipurified VP2 was then used in capture ELISA. Sera from chickens experimentally infected with ChPV and sera from uninfected chickens were tested to evaluate the assay. The ELISA was 93.3% sensitive and 100% specific in detecting ChPV-infected birds. Subsequent assays identified IgG type ChPV-specific maternally acquired antibodies in day-old chickens and demonstrated the production of virus-specific antibodies in young birds following infection with ChPV. In our study, a specific antibody response of infected chickens was observed starting with IgM production between 14 and 21 days postinfection (DPI) and switching into a predominant IgG response by 32 DPI. The availability of an ELISA for detection of virus-specific antibodies and its ability to differentiate between maternally acquired antibodies and antibodies produced following acute infection could prove to be a valuable tool to characterize pathobiological properties and immunogenicity of ChPV.

Development of a polymerase chain reaction procedure for detection of chicken and turkey parvoviruses.

Comparative sequence analysis of six independent chicken and turkey parvovirus nonstructural (NS) genes revealed specific genomic regions with 100% nucleotide sequence identity. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay with primers targeting these conserved genome sequences proved to be highly specific and sensitive to detecting parvoviruses in experimentally infected chickens. In a nationwide survey, a total of 138 field enteric samples from poultry flocks were tested by PCR for parvovirus presence. Of the tested chicken samples that were collected in 54 farms, 77% showed the presence of parvovirus, while 78% of the turkey samples that were received from 29 farms were parvovirus positive. For the first time, our data clearly demonstrate that parvoviruses are widely distributed in commercial poultry flocks in the United States. The high prevalence of parvovirus infection in birds from enteric disease-affected flocks suggests a potential role of these viruses in the etiology of enteric disease of poultry. Phylogenetic analyses comparing NS gene segments showed that most of the chicken and turkey parvovirus isolates formed separate phylogenetic groups. These findings suggest that the chicken and turkey parvoviruses might have diverged from a common ancestor and have subsequently undergone host-specific adaptation.

Plasmid requirements for infection of ticks by Borrelia burgdorferi.

Borrelia burgdorferi strain B31 MI commonly loses one or more of its complement of 21 extrachromosomal plasmids during normal handling procedures and during genetic manipulations. Certain plasmid losses cause an inability or reduction in the ability of spirochetes to infect mice. In the current study, nine strains of spirochetes with varying plasmid profiles were used to identify plasmids necessary for nymphal tick infection. Nymphal ticks were artificially fed the nine spirochete strains as well as the parental strain containing a full complement of plasmids. The capillary fed nymphs were allowed to feed on mice for at least 63 h and then examined for the presence of spirochetes in their guts and salivary glands. All spirochete strains tested were able to infect ticks guts, but to different degrees. We determined that the plasmids lp5, lp28-1, and cp9 were not required for infecting tick guts, whereas loss of lp25 and lp28-4 was associated with reduced gut infectivity. A reduction in the ability of spirochetes to invade salivary glands was seen in bacteria that did not have lp28-1, whereas cp9 was not required for salivary gland infection. This study has pinpointed specific plasmids whose absence is deleterious to infecting nymphal tick guts and salivary glands.

Reservoir competence of lesser mealworm (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) for Campylobacter jejuni (Campylobacterales: Campylobacteraceae).

The lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer), is a carrier of Campylobacter spp. in poultry facilities; however, the beetle's importance in the epidemiology of campylobacteriosis is not known. A series of laboratory experiments were designed to test the vector and reservoir competence of the lesser mealworm for Campylobacter jejuni. In the first experiment, C. jejuni was swabbed onto the outer surface of adult and larval beetles to determine how long bacteria can survive on the beetles' exterior. Next, adult and larval mealworms were allowed to drink from a solution containing C. jejuni and the duration of internal carriage was monitored. For the third experiment, beetles drank from a Campylobacter suspension and the duration of fecal shedding of bacteria was determined. In the last experiment, 3-d-old chickens were fed either one or 10 infected beetles, and cloacal swabs were tested periodically for Campylobacter. C. jejuni was detected on the exterior of larval beetles for 12 h, from the interior of larvae for 72 h, and from the feces of larvae for 12 h after exposure. Ninety percent of the birds that consumed a single adult or larval beetles became Campylobacter-positive, whereas 100% of the birds that consumed 10 adults or larvae became positive. These experiments demonstrated that the lesser mealworm could acquire and harbor Campylobacter from an environmental source. We found that the lesser mealworm was capable of passing viable bacteria to chickens that consumed the beetle. The beetle should be included in attempts to maintain Campylobacter-free poultry facilities.

Ancillary techniques on the evaluation of canine cutaneous mast cell tumors from Brazil / Técnicas auxiliares avaliação de mastocitomas cutâneos caninos do Brasil

ABSTRACT: The use of histologic classification by a 2-tier grading system only, immunohistochemistry (IHC) for KIT and Ki-67 and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for internal tandem duplications (ITD) on exon 11 has improved the prognostication of canine cutaneous mast cell tumors (CCMTs) particularly in the United States. However, these techniques are not commonly used in most Brazilian laboratories. Likewise, no studies, to date, have investigated the occurrence of ITD in CCMTs from the country. Thus, this study tested the 2-tier grading system, the immunohistochemistry for KIT and Ki-67 and the PCR for exon 11 in a group of Brazilian CCMTs with the goal of investigating the applicability of these tests in a Brazilian laboratory. Of the 39 CCMTs, 69.2% (27/39) were identified as low-grade and 30.8% (12/39) as high-grade by a 2-tier grading system. All tumors had a KIT expression pattern II, and 30.6% (11/36) had a high growth fraction (Ki-67). PCR amplification was successful in four of the 11 tumors examined. Two of these (50%) were positive for ITD. This study highlights the importance of using auxiliary techniques in the CCMT evaluation, identifies limitations and confirms the applicability of these methods on a routine diagnostic basis in Brazil. Our results will help to improve the prognostication of CCMTs in Brazilian diagnostic laboratories, encouraging the use of supplementary methods.

RESUMO: O uso de classificação histológica por um novo sistema de graduação que utiliza apenas duas categorias, imuno-histoquímica (IHQ) para KIT e Ki-67 e reação de polimerase em cadeia (PCR) para mutações (duplicações internas) no éxon 11 tem melhorado a avaliação do prognóstico de mastocitomas cutâneos caninos (MCCs), particularmente nos Estados Unidos. No entanto, essas técnicas são ainda pouco utilizadas em laboratórios brasileiros e, até então, nenhum estudo investigou a prevalência de duplicações internas (DIs) em MCCs do país. Este estudo testou o novo sistema de graduação histológica de duas categorias, a imuno-histoquímica para KIT e Ki-67 e o PCR para exon 11 em um grupo de MCCs brasileiros, com o objetivo de investigar a aplicabilidade desses métodos em um laboratório brasileiro. De 39 MCCs, 69,2% foram identificados como sendo de baixo grau e 30,8% como de alto grau. Todos tiveram um padrão II de expressão de KIT, e 30,6% (11/36) tiveram uma alta contagem para Ki-67. A amplificação foi bem-sucedida em quatro dos 11 tumores examinados. Dois destes (50%) foram positivos para DIs. Este estudo ressaltou a importância do uso de técnicas auxiliares na avaliação de MCCs, identificou limitações e confirmou a aplicabilidade desses métodos em uma rotina de diagnósticos no Brasil. Esses resultados irão auxiliar na melhor avaliação prognóstica dos MCCs em laboratórios brasileiros, encorajando o uso de métodos suplementares neste processo.

Infection of mice with lyme disease spirochetes constitutively producing outer surface proteins a and B.

Outer surface protein A (OspA) of the Lyme disease spirochete is primarily produced in the tick vector. OspA, which is a receptor for attaching spirochetes to the tick gut, is down regulated as the spirochetes leave the tick and enter the mammalian host. Although OspA is not a major antigen produced in the mammal, the protein appears to be produced under some conditions and production has been linked to more severe disease. A Lyme disease vaccine based on recombinant OspA has been approved for human use. However, the vaccine is no longer available, in part because of fears that OspA causes arthritis in people. To further understand the consequences of OspA production in the host, we created a Borrelia burgdorferi mutant that was unable to down regulate OspA. C3H/HeN mice infected with this mutant developed a specific anti-OspA immune response, and the spirochetes were unable to persist in these mice. In contrast, immunodeficient SCID mice were persistently infected with the mutant. We conclude that spirochetes producing OspA and B from the flaB promoter in immunocompetent mice stimulate an immune response that clear the bacteria without any signs of disease development in the mice.

Role of Borrelia burgdorferi linear plasmid 25 in infection of Ixodes scapularis ticks.

The tick-borne bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi has over 20 different circular and linear plasmids. Some B. burgdorferi plasmids are readily lost during in vitro culture or genetic manipulation. Linear plasmid 25, which is often lost in laboratory strains, is required for the infection of mice. Strains missing linear plasmid 25 (lp25(-)) are able to infect mice if the BBE22 gene on lp25 is provided on a shuttle vector. In this study, we examined the role of lp25 and BBE22 in tick infections. We tested the hypothesis that complementation with BBE22 in spirochetes lacking lp25 would restore the ability of spirochetes to infect ticks. A natural tick infection cycle was performed by feeding larvae on mice injected with the parental, lp25(-), or lp25(-) BBE22-complemented spirochete strains. In addition, larvae and nymphs were artificially infected with different strains to study tick infections independent of mouse infections. B. burgdorferi missing lp25 was significantly impaired in its ability to infect larval and nymphal ticks. When an lp25(-) strain was complemented with BBE22, the ability to infect ticks was partially restored. Complementation with BBE22 allowed spirochetes lacking lp25 to establish short-term infections in ticks, but in most cases the infection prevalence was lower than that of the wild-type strain. In addition, the number of infected ticks decreased over time, suggesting that another gene(s) on lp25 is required for long-term persistence in ticks and completion of a natural infection cycle.