Human early-onset dementia caused by DAP12 deficiency reveals a unique signature of dysregulated microglia.

The TREM2-DAP12 receptor complex sustains microglia functions. Heterozygous hypofunctional TREM2 variants impair microglia, accelerating late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Homozygous inactivating variants of TREM2 or TYROBP-encoding DAP12 cause Nasu-Hakola disease (NHD), an early-onset dementia characterized by cerebral atrophy, myelin loss and gliosis. Mechanisms underpinning NHD are unknown. Here, single-nucleus RNA-sequencing analysis of brain specimens from DAP12-deficient NHD individuals revealed a unique microglia signature indicating heightened RUNX1, STAT3 and transforming growth factor-ß signaling pathways that mediate repair responses to injuries. This profile correlated with a wound healing signature in astrocytes and impaired myelination in oligodendrocytes, while pericyte profiles indicated vascular abnormalities. Conversely, single-nuclei signatures in mice lacking DAP12 signaling reflected very mild microglial defects that did not recapitulate NHD. We envision that DAP12 signaling in microglia attenuates wound healing pathways that, if left unchecked, interfere with microglial physiological functions, causing pathology in human. The identification of a dysregulated NHD microglia signature sparks potential therapeutic strategies aimed at resetting microglia signaling pathways.

Reliable detection of genetic alterations in cyst fluid DNA for the diagnosis of brain tumors.

PURPOSE: Liquid biopsy of cyst fluid in brain tumors has not been extensively studied to date. The present study was performed to see whether diagnostic genetic alterations found in brain tumor tissue DNA could also be detected in cell-free DNA (cfDNA) of cyst fluid in cystic brain tumors. METHODS: Cyst fluid was obtained from 22 patients undergoing surgery for a cystic brain tumor with confirmed genetic alterations in tumor DNA. Pathological diagnoses based on WHO 2021 classification and diagnostic alterations in the tumor DNA, such as IDH1 R132H and TERT promoter mutation for oligodendrogliomas, were detected by Sanger sequencing. The same alterations were analyzed by both droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) and Sanger sequencing in cyst fluid cfDNA. Additionally, multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) assays were performed to assess 1p/19q status, presence of CDKN2A loss, PTEN loss and EGFR amplification, to assess whether differentiating between astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas and grading is possible from cyst fluid cfDNA. RESULTS: Twenty-five genetic alterations were found in 22 tumor samples. All (100%) alterations were detected in cyst fluid cfDNA by ddPCR. Twenty of the 25 (80%) alterations were also detected by Sanger sequencing of cyst fluid cfDNA. Variant allele frequency (VAF) in cyst fluid cfDNA was comparable to that of tumor DNA (R = 0.62, Pearson's correlation). MLPA was feasible in 11 out of 17 (65%) diffuse gliomas, with close correlation of results between tumor DNA and cyst fluid cfDNA. CONCLUSION: Cell-free DNA obtained from cyst fluid in cystic brain tumors is a reliable alternative to tumor DNA when diagnosing brain tumors.

Development of a novel PET ligand, [11C]GO289 targeting CK2 expressed in the brain.

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a powerful imaging tool that enables early in vivo detection of Alzheimer's disease (AD). For this purpose, various PET ligands have been developed to image ß-amyloid and tau protein aggregates characteristically found in the brain of AD patients. In this study, we initiated to develop another type of PET ligand that targets protein kinase CK2 (formerly termed as casein kinase II), because its expression level is known to be altered in postmortem AD brains. CK2 is a serine/threonine protein kinase, an important component of cellular signaling pathways that control cellular degeneration. In AD, the CK2 level in the brain is thought to be elevated by its involvement in both phosphorylation of proteins such as tau and neuroinflammation. Decreased CK2 activity and expression levels lead to ß-amyloid accumulation. In addition, since CK2 also contributes to the phosphorylation of tau protein, the expression level and activity of CK2 is expected to undergo significant changes during the progression of AD pathology. Furthermore, CK2 could act as a potential target for modulating the inflammatory response in AD. Therefore, PET imaging targeting CK2 expressed in the brain could be a useful another imaging biomarker for AD. We synthesized and radiolabeled a CK2 inhibitor, [11C]GO289, in high yields from its precursor and [11C]methyl iodide under basic conditions. On autoradiography, [11C]GO289 specifically bound to CK2 in both rat and human brain sections. On baseline PET imaging, this ligand entered and rapidly washed out of the rat brain with its peak activity rather being small (SUV < 1.0). However, on blocking, there was no detectable CK2 specific binding signal. Thus, [11C]GO289 may be useful in vitro but not so in vivo in its current formulation. The lack of detectable specific binding signal in the latter may be due to a relatively high component of nonspecific binding signal in the overall rather weak PET signal, or it may also be related to the known fact that ATP can competitively binds to subunits of CK2, reducing its availability for this ligand. In the future, it will be necessary for PET imaging of CK2 to try out different non-ATP competitive formulations of CK2 inhibitor that can also provide significantly higher in vivo brain penetration.

Epilepsy surgery without lipoma removal for temporal lobe epilepsy associated with lipoma in the Sylvian fissure.

Epileptic seizure is the common symptom associated with lipomas in the Sylvian fissure (Sylvian lipomas). Removal of these lipomas carries risks of hemorrhage and brain damage. We report a surgical strategy of not removing the lipoma in a case of intractable temporal lobe epilepsy associated with Sylvian lipoma. We performed anterior temporal lobectomy with preservation of the pia mater of the Sylvian fissure and achieved seizure freedom. Focal cortical dysplasia type 1 of the epileptic neocortex adjacent to the Sylvian lipoma was pathologically diagnosed. We recommend our surgical procedure in similar cases to avoid complications and achieve adequate seizure control.

Brain TDP-43 pathology in corticobasal degeneration: Topographical correlation with neuronal loss.

AIMS: Neuronal and glial inclusions comprising transactive response DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) have been identified in the brains of patients with corticobasal degeneration (CBD), and a possible correlation between the presence of these inclusions and clinical phenotypes has been speculated. However, the significance of TDP-43 pathology in the pathomechanism of CBD has remained unclear. Here, we investigated the topographical relationship between TDP-43 inclusions and neuronal loss in CBD. METHODS: We estimated semi-quantitatively neuronal loss and TDP-43 pathology in the form of neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions (NCIs), astrocytic inclusions (AIs), oligodendroglial cytoplasmic inclusions (GCIs), and dystrophic neurites in 22 CNS regions in 10 patients with CBD. Then, the degree of correlation between the severity of neuronal loss and the quantity of each type of TDP-43 inclusion was assessed. We also investigated tau pathology in a similar manner. RESULTS: TDP-43 pathology was evident in nine patients. The putamen and globus pallidus were the regions most frequently affected (80%). NCIs were the most prominent form, and their quantity was significantly correlated with the severity of neuronal loss in more than half of the regions examined. The quantities of TDP-43 NCIs and tau NCIs were correlated in only a few regions. The number of regions where the quantities of TDP-43 AIs and GCIs were correlated with the severity of neuronal loss was apparently small in comparison with that of NCIs. CONCLUSIONS: TDP-43 alterations in neurons, not closely associated with tau pathology, may be involved in the pathomechanism underlying neuronal loss in CBD. There was a significant topographical correlation between neuronal cytoplasmic aggregation of TDP-43 and neuronal loss in CBD, suggesting that TDP-43 protein aberration might be associated with neuronal degeneration in CBD. There was no close correlation between the burden of TDP-43 and that of tau in neurons.

Pathological substrate of memory impairment in multiple system atrophy.

AIMS: Synaptic dysfunction in Parkinson's disease is caused by propagation of pathogenic α-synuclein between neurons. Previously, in multiple system atrophy (MSA), pathologically characterised by ectopic deposition of abnormal α-synuclein predominantly in oligodendrocytes, we demonstrated that the occurrence of memory impairment was associated with the number of α-synuclein-positive neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions (NCIs) in the hippocampus. In the present study, we aimed to investigate how abnormal α-synuclein in the hippocampus can lead to memory impairment. METHODS: We performed pathological and biochemical analyses using a mouse model of adult-onset MSA and human cases (MSA, N = 25; Parkinson's disease, N = 3; Alzheimer's disease, N = 2; normal controls, N = 11). In addition, the MSA model mice were examined behaviourally and physiologically. RESULTS: In the MSA model, inducible human α-synuclein was first expressed in oligodendrocytes and subsequently accumulated in the cytoplasm of excitatory hippocampal neurons (NCI-like structures) and their presynaptic nerve terminals with the development of memory impairment. α-Synuclein oligomers increased simultaneously in the hippocampus of the MSA model. Hippocampal dendritic spines also decreased in number, followed by suppression of long-term potentiation. Consistent with these findings obtained in the MSA model, post-mortem analysis of human MSA brain tissues showed that cases of MSA with memory impairment developed more NCIs in excitatory hippocampal neurons along with α-synuclein oligomers than those without. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide new insights into the role of α-synuclein oligomers as a possible pathological cause of memory impairment in MSA.

Praja1 RING-finger E3 ubiquitin ligase is a common suppressor of neurodegenerative disease-associated protein aggregation.

The formation of misfolded protein aggregates is one of the pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases. We have previously demonstrated the cytoplasmic aggregate formation of adenovirally expressed transactivation response DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43), the main constituent of neuronal cytoplasmic aggregates in cases of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), in cultured neuronal cells under the condition of proteasome inhibition. The TDP-43 aggregate formation was markedly suppressed by co-infection of adenoviruses expressing heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1), a master regulator of heat shock response, and Praja1 RING-finger E3 ubiquitin ligase (PJA1) located downstream of the HSF1 pathway. In the present study, we examined other reportedly known E3 ubiquitin ligases for TDP-43, i.e. Parkin, RNF112 and RNF220, but failed to find their suppressive effects on neuronal cytoplasmic TDP-43 aggregate formation, although they all bind to TDP-43 as verified by co-immunoprecipitation. In contrast, PJA1 also binds to adenovirally expressed wild-type and mutated fused in sarcoma, superoxide dismutase 1, α-synuclein and ataxin-3, and huntingtin polyglutamine proteins in neuronal cultures and suppressed the aggregate formation of these proteins. These results suggest that PJA1 is a common sensing factor for aggregate-prone proteins to counteract their aggregation propensity, and could be a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases that include ALS, FTLD, Parkinson's disease and polyglutamine diseases.

Parkinson's disease and parkinsonism: Clinicopathological discrepancies on diagnosis in three patients.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders. The cardinal neuropathological features of PD include selective and progressive loss of pigmented neurons in the substantia nigra, deficiencies in dopaminergic signaling in the striatum, and occurrence of phosphorylated α-synuclein-identified Lewy bodies in the nervous system. Parkinsonism, the clinical presentation of movement disorders seen in PD, is a feature shared commonly by other pathologically distinct neurodegenerative diseases, such as progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), corticobasal degeneration (CBD), and multiple system atrophy (MSA). Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish PD from such parkinsonism-related neurological disorders. In addition, parkinsonism is not always a feature of certain neurodegenerative diseases, and it can sometimes develop as a result of various forms of drug intoxication or cerebrovascular disease. Here, we describe the clinicopathological features of three patients (cases 1, 2, and 3) diagnosed as having PSP, MSA, and PD, respectively, in each of whom the postmortem histopathological diagnosis differed from the final clinical diagnosis. Neuropathologically, they had suffered from coexistent disorders: PD, MSA, and argyrophilic grain disease (case 1); PD (case 2); and vascular parkinsonism (case 3). The variety of patients showing features of parkinsonism underlines the importance of careful long-term follow up followed by postmortem neuropathological evaluation.

Praja1 RING-finger E3 ubiquitin ligase suppresses neuronal cytoplasmic TDP-43 aggregate formation.

Transactivation response DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) is a major constituent of cytoplasmic aggregates in neuronal and glial cells in cases of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). We have previously shown neuronal cytoplasmic aggregate formation induced by recombinant adenoviruses expressing human wild-type and C-terminal fragment (CTF) TDP-43 under the condition of proteasome inhibition in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we demonstrated that the formation of the adenoviral TDP-43 aggregates was markedly suppressed in rat neural stem cell-derived neuronal cells by co-infection of an adenovirus expressing heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1), a master regulator of heat shock response. We performed DNA microarray analysis and searched several candidate molecules, located downstream of HSF1, which counteract TDP-43 aggregate formation. Among these, we identified Praja 1 RING-finger E3 ubiquitin ligase (PJA1) as a suppressor of phosphorylation and aggregate formation of TDP-43. Co-immunoprecipitation assay revealed that PJA1 binds to CTF TDP-43 and the E2-conjugating enzyme UBE2E3. PJA1 also suppressed formation of cytoplasmic phosphorylated TDP-43 aggregates in mouse facial motor neurons in vivo. Furthermore, phosphorylated TDP-43 aggregates were detected in PJA1-immunoreactive human ALS motor neurons. These results indicate that PJA1 is one of the principal E3 ubiquitin ligases for TDP-43 to counteract its aggregation propensity and could be a potential therapeutic target for ALS and FTLD.

Na, K-ATPase α3 is a death target of Alzheimer patient amyloid-ß assembly.

Neurodegeneration correlates with Alzheimer's disease (AD) symptoms, but the molecular identities of pathogenic amyloid ß-protein (Aß) oligomers and their targets, leading to neurodegeneration, remain unclear. Amylospheroids (ASPD) are AD patient-derived 10- to 15-nm spherical Aß oligomers that cause selective degeneration of mature neurons. Here, we show that the ASPD target is neuron-specific Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase α3 subunit (NAKα3). ASPD-binding to NAKα3 impaired NAKα3-specific activity, activated N-type voltage-gated calcium channels, and caused mitochondrial calcium dyshomeostasis, tau abnormalities, and neurodegeneration. NMR and molecular modeling studies suggested that spherical ASPD contain N-terminal-Aß-derived "thorns" responsible for target binding, which are distinct from low molecular-weight oligomers and dodecamers. The fourth extracellular loop (Ex4) region of NAKα3 encompassing Asn(879) and Trp(880) is essential for ASPD-NAKα3 interaction, because tetrapeptides mimicking this Ex4 region bound to the ASPD surface and blocked ASPD neurotoxicity. Our findings open up new possibilities for knowledge-based design of peptidomimetics that inhibit neurodegeneration in AD by blocking aberrant ASPD-NAKα3 interaction.

Vertical Gaze Palsy Caused by Selective Unilateral Rostral Midbrain Infarction.

Vertical gaze palsy is rarely a neurological symptom, although it has been observed in some cases. Here, we report the case of a patient presenting with complete upward and downward gaze palsy. In this case, a small lesion in the left rostral midbrain was observed on diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) images, and the lesion was considered to cause the ocular symptom. We consider that vertical gaze palsy is an important clue to an accurate topical diagnosis of a brain lesion.

Characteristic microglial features in patients with hereditary diffuse leukoencephalopathy with spheroids.

OBJECTIVE: To clarify the histopathological alterations of microglia in the brains of patients with hereditary diffuse leukoencephalopathy with spheroids (HDLS) caused by mutations of the gene encoding the colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R). METHODS: We examined 5 autopsied brains and 1 biopsy specimen from a total of 6 patients with CSF-1R mutations. Detailed immunohistochemical, biochemical, and ultrastructural features of microglia were examined, and quantitative analyses were performed. RESULTS: In layers 3 to 4 of the frontal cortex in HDLS brains, microglia showed relatively uniform and delicate morphology, with thin and winding processes accompanying knotlike structures, and significantly smaller areas of Iba1 immunoreactivity and lower numbers of Iba1-positive cells were evident in comparison with control brains. On the other hand, in layers 5 to 6 and the underlying white matter, microglia were distributed unevenly; that is, in some areas they had accumulated densely, whereas in others they were scattered. Immunoblot analyses of microglia-associated proteins, including CD11b and DAP12, revealed that HDLS brains had significantly lower amounts of these proteins than diseased controls, although Ki-67-positive proliferative microglia were not reduced. Ultrastructurally, the microglial cytoplasm and processes in HDLS showed vesiculation of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and disaggregated polyribosomes, indicating depression of protein synthesis. On the other hand, macrophages were immunonegative for GLUT-5 or P2ry12, indicating that they were derived from bone marrow. INTERPRETATION: The pathogenesis of HDLS seems to be associated with microglial vulnerability and morphological alterations. Ann Neurol 2016;80:554-565.

Progressive myoclonus epilepsy: extraneuronal brown pigment deposition and system neurodegeneration in the brains of Japanese patients with novel SCARB2 mutations.

AIMS: Mutations in the SCARB2 gene cause a rare autosomal recessive disease, progressive myoclonus epilepsy (PME) with or without renal failure, the former also being designated action myoclonus-renal failure syndrome. Although reported cases have been accumulating, only a few have described its neuropathology. We studied two Japanese patients with PME without renal failure, in whom the ages at onset and disease durations were 45 and 20 years, and 14 and 8.5 years respectively. METHODS: Sequencing and restriction analysis of the SCARB2 gene and neuropathological examination with immunohistochemistry were performed. RESULTS: Gene analyses revealed novel homozygous frameshift and nonsense mutations in the SCARB2 gene. Both cases exhibited deposition of brown pigment in the brain, especially the cerebellar and cerebral cortices. Ultrastructurally, the pigment granules were localized in astrocytes. Neuronal loss and gliosis were also evident in the brain, including the pallidoluysian and cerebello-olivary systems. The spinal cord was also affected. Such changes were less severe in one patient with late-onset disease than in the other patient with early-onset disease. In brain and kidney sections, immunostaining with an antibody against the C-terminus of human SCARB2 revealed decreased levels and no expression of the protein respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The frameshift mutation detected in the patient with late-onset disease is a hitherto undescribed, unique type of SCARB2 gene mutation. The present two patients are the first reported to have clearly demonstrated both extraneuronal brown pigment deposition and system neurodegeneration as neuropathological features of PME with SCARB2 mutations.

Pathology and sensitivity of current clinical criteria in corticobasal syndrome.

The aim of this study was to investigate corticobasal syndrome with respect to underlying pathologies, the ability of current clinical criteria to detect early stages of disease, and symptoms and signs predicting background pathologies. We retrospectively analyzed the clinicopathological findings from patients with corticobasal syndrome. We also analyzed whether those findings fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for corticobasal degeneration (CBD). Finally, we investigated characteristic clinical features that are specific to each background pathology. Of 10 consecutive autopsied patients who had corticobasal syndrome (mean age ± standard deviation, 67.9 ± 9.3 years; male:female ratio, 6:4), three had corticobasal degeneration pathology, three had progressive supranuclear palsy, three had Alzheimer's disease, and one had atypical four-repeat tauopathy. Nine patients fulfilled Mayo criteria, and all 10 patients fulfilled modified Cambridge criteria at the later stage, but only two patients fulfilled either clinical criteria within 2 years of disease onset. Five patients fulfilled the clinical criteria for possible CBD (p-CBD), and one patient fulfilled the clinical research criteria for probable sporadic CBD (cr-CBD) at the later stage. Only two patients fulfilled the criteria for either p-CBD or cr-CBD within 2 years of disease onset. Although we could not find any predictive characteristic clinical features that were specific to CBD pathology, only patients with progressive supranuclear palsy developed apraxia of eyelid opening and cerebellar ataxia. Myoclonus and memory impairment, especially if they appear at an early stage of the disease, may predict Alzheimer's disease pathology. Sensitivity of the available clinical criteria for corticobasal syndrome was poor within 2 years of disease onset.

Indications for a brain biopsy in neurological diseases of unknown etiology: The role of magnetic resonance imaging findings and liquid biopsy in yielding definitive pathological diagnoses.

Brain biopsies are often considered for patients who cannot be diagnosed with various laboratory test results. However, physicians tend to be hesitant regarding their application in possibly non-neoplastic brain diseases, due to the invasiveness and risks. The aim was to determine the indications for brain biopsies in cases of neurological diseases of unknown etiology. We retrospectively evaluated diagnostic accuracy, laboratory findings (including a liquid biopsy for malignant lymphoma), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) characteristics and the post-treatment outcomes of patients undergoing brain biopsies for neurological diseases of unknown etiology. The data of patients who had undergone a brain biopsy during their admission to Niigata University Hospital, between 2011 and 2024, were reviewed. Moreover, the laboratory data and MRI findings between patients with definitive and nonspecific biopsy diagnoses were compared. Twenty-six patients underwent a brain biopsy, and a definitive diagnosis was obtained in 14 patients (53.8%). Even in cases where a nonspecific diagnosis was made, biopsy findings helped rule out malignancy and guide clinical diagnosis and treatment decisions. The liquid biopsy for malignant lymphoma was performed in eight patients, with one yielding a positive result, consistent with primary central nervous system lymphoma. The sensitivity and specificity of liquid biopsy were 0.5 and 1, respectively. Diffusely contrasted cortical lesions and the presence of mass effects on MRI, were significantly associated with a definitive diagnosis, compared to a nonspecific diagnosis. In conclusion, brain MRI and liquid biopsies can assist in determining the appropriate indications for brain biopsies in neurological diseases of unknown etiology.

Case report: Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy co-occurring with neurosarcoidosis: early brain biopsy and appropriate therapy for PML resulted in a favorable prognosis.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a rare central nervous system disease caused by JC virus (JCV) infection. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is the greatest risk factor for PML. Other immunological diseases, including systemic sarcoidosis, have also been reported as risk factors for PML. Herein, we report a case of PML co-occurring with neurosarcoidosis. Early diagnosis using brain biopsy and appropriate therapeutic interventions achieved favorable outcomes. PML in patients with active intracranial neurosarcoidosis is extremely rare. We believe that it is important to perform brain biopsy at an early stage to allow diagnosis, even for central nervous system involvement with a progressive parenchymal lesion in patients with sarcoidosis, if PML is possible.

A novel PET probe to selectively image heat shock protein 90α/ß isoforms in the brain.

BACKGROUND: Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are present throughout the brain. They function as molecular chaperones, meaning they help with the folding and unfolding of large protein complexes. These chaperones are vital in the development of neuropathological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and Lewy body disease, with HSP90, a specific subtype of HSP, playing a key role. Many studies have shown that drugs that inhibit HSP90 activity have beneficial effects in the neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, HSP90 PET imaging ligand can be used effectively to study HSP90 in neurodegenerative diseases. Among four HSP90 isoforms, two cytosolic isoforms (HSP90α and HSP90ß) thought to be involved in the structural homeostasis of the proteins related to the neurodegenerative diseases. Currently, no useful PET imaging ligands selectively targeting the two cytosolic isoforms of HSP90 have been available yet. RESULTS: In this study, we developed a novel positron emission tomography (PET) imaging ligand, [11C]BIIB021, by 11C-radiolabeling (a positron emitter with a half-life of 20.4 min) 6-Chloro-9-[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridin-2-yl)methyl]-9H-purin-2-amine (BIIB021), an inhibitor with a high affinity for and selectivity to HSP90α and HSP90ß. [11C]BIIB021 was synthesized with a high yield, molar activity and radiochemical purity. [11C]BIIB021 showed a high binding affinity for rat brain homogenate as well as human recombinant HSP90α and HSP90ß proteins. Radioactivity was well detected in the rat brain (SUV 1.4). It showed clear specific binding in PET imaging of healthy rats and autoradiography of healthy rat and human brain sections. Radiometabolite was detected in the brain, however, total distribution volume was well quantified using dual-input graphical model. Inhibition of p-glycoprotein increased brain radioactivity concentrations. However, total distribution volume values with and without p-glycoprotein inhibition were nearly the same. CONCLUSIONS: We have developed a new PET imaging agent, [11C]BIIB021, specifically targeting HSP90α/ß. We have been successful in synthesizing [11C]BIIB021 and in vitro and in vivo imaging HSP90α/ß. However, the quantification of HSP90α/ß is complicated by the presence of radiometabolites in the brain and the potential to be a substrate for p-glycoprotein. Further efforts are needed to develop radioligand suitable for imaging of HSP90α/ß.

Successful Multimodal Treatment of Intracranial Growing Teratoma Syndrome with Malignant Features.

Molecular analysis of the growing teratoma syndrome has not been extensively studied. Here, we report a 14-year-old boy with a growing mass during treatment for a mixed germ cell tumor of the pineal region. Tumor markers were negative; thus, growing teratoma syndrome was suspected. A radical resection via the occipital transtentorial approach was performed, and histopathological examination revealed a teratoma with malignant features. Methylation classifier analysis confirmed the diagnosis of teratoma, and DMRT1 loss and 12p gain were identified by copy number variation analysis, potentially elucidating the cause of growth and malignant transformation of the teratoma. The patient remains in remission after intense chemoradiation treatment as a high-risk germ cell tumor.