A Randomized Clinical Trial of Snus Examining the Effect of Complete Versus Partial Cigarette Substitution on Smoking-Related Behaviors, and Biomarkers of Exposure.

INTRODUCTION: This 8-week multisite, randomized controlled trial of snus examined the differential effects of instructions on (1) snus use, (2) smoking and smoking-related measures, and (3) exposure to tobacco-related constituents. METHOD: US adult daily cigarette smokers (n = 150; 43.3% female; Medianage = 43.5) were recruited from Minneapolis, Minnesota; Columbus and Coshocton, Ohio; and Buffalo, New York. Following a 1-week sampling phase of snus, participants who used at least 7 pouches were randomized to either (1) partial substitution (PS; "use snus as you like with your cigarettes"), (2) complete substitution (CS; "avoid cigarettes"), or (3) usual brand cigarettes (UB). Analyses included between-group analyses (eg, PS vs. CS) using Wilcoxon rank sum test of cigarettes per day and snus pouches per day, and a linear mixed model (biomarkers). RESULTS: Compared to the PS and UB groups, smokers assigned to CS reported greater reductions in cigarettes per day (ps < .001), using more snus pouches per day (p = .02), and more smoke-free days (CS median = 14.5, PS and UB medians = 0, p < .001). In addition, results demonstrated reductions in carbon monoxide (p < .001), total nicotine equivalents (p = .02), and four out of five measured volatile organic compounds (ps < .01) over time among the CS group. Exposure to N'-nitrosonornicotine increased by trial end only among the PS group (p < .04). Phenanthrene tetraol increased among all groups by trial end (p = .02) with no difference between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Instructions to completely switch from cigarettes to snus resulted in the greatest reduction in cigarettes and exposure to harmful constituents. IMPLICATIONS: Directly instructing smokers to switch completely to snus, rather than using ad libitum (with no instructions to avoid cigarettes), is necessary for reductions in smoking and subsequent exposure to harmful constituents.

A Randomized Clinical Trial Examining the Effects of Instructions for Electronic Cigarette Use on Smoking-Related Behaviors and Biomarkers of Exposure.

INTRODUCTION: Electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) have the potential to significantly reduce exposure to harmful constituents associated with cigarette smoking when smokers completely substitute cigarettes with e-cigarettes. This study examined patterns of e-cigarette and cigarette use, and extent of toxicant exposure, if smokers were instructed and incentivized to completely switch to e-cigarettes compared to instructions to use the product ad libitum. AIMS AND METHODS: US adult daily smokers (n = 264; 49.2% female; Mage = 47.0), uninterested in quitting smoking immediately, were recruited from Minneapolis, MN, Columbus, OH, and Buffalo, NY. Participants were randomized to 8 weeks of instructions for (1) ad libitum use of e-cigarettes (AD-E), (2) complete substitution of cigarettes with e-cigarettes (CS-E), (3) complete substitution of cigarettes with nicotine gum or lozenge (CS-NRT), or (4) continue smoking of usual brand cigarettes (UB). Participants were incentivized for protocol compliance, including complete switching in the CS-E and CS-NRT groups. Outcome variables were cigarette smoking rate and tobacco-related biomarkers of exposure. RESULTS: Smokers in the CS-E and CS-NRT groups showed lower rates of smoking and lower exposure to carbon monoxide, tobacco carcinogens, and other toxicants than smokers in the AD-E group. In general, no significant differences were observed between CS-E versus CS-NRT or between AD-E versus UB for most biomarkers. Significantly higher 7-day point prevalence smoke-free rates were observed for CS-E versus CS-NRT. CONCLUSIONS: Smokers instructed and incentivized to completely switch to e-cigarettes resulted in lower smoking rates and greater reductions in exposures to harmful chemicals than smokers instructed to use the product ad libitum. IMPLICATIONS: Smokers instructed to completely substitute e-cigarettes for cigarettes displayed significantly lower levels of smoking and biomarkers of exposure to carcinogens and toxicants, compared to smokers instructed to use e-cigarettes ad libitum and similar levels as smokers instructed to completely substitute with nicotine replacement therapies. Furthermore, a higher rate of complete switching was achieved with e-cigarettes versus nicotine replacement therapies. Approaches to maximize complete substitution with e-cigarettes are an important area for future research.

Effect of Immediate vs Gradual Reduction in Nicotine Content of Cigarettes on Biomarkers of Smoke Exposure: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: The optimal temporal approach for reducing nicotine to minimally or nonaddictive levels in all cigarettes sold in the United States has not been determined. Objectives: To determine the effects of immediate vs gradual reduction in nicotine content to very low levels and as compared with usual nicotine level cigarettes on biomarkers of toxicant exposure. Design, Setting, and Participants: A double-blind, randomized, parallel-design study with 2 weeks of baseline smoking and 20 weeks of intervention was conducted at 10 US sites. A volunteer sample of daily smokers with no intention to quit within 30 days was recruited between July 2014 and September 2016, with the last follow-up completed in March 2017. Interventions: (1) Immediate reduction to 0.4 mg of nicotine per gram of tobacco cigarettes; (2) gradual reduction from 15.5 mg to 0.4 mg of nicotine per gram of tobacco cigarettes with 5 monthly dose changes; or (3) maintenance on 15.5 mg of nicotine per gram of tobacco cigarettes. Main Outcomes and Measures: Between-group differences in 3 co-primary biomarkers of smoke toxicant exposure: breath carbon monoxide (CO), urine 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid (3-HPMA, metabolite of acrolein), and urine phenanthrene tetraol (PheT, indicator of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) calculated as area under the concentration-time curve over the 20 weeks of intervention. Results: Among 1250 randomized participants (mean age, 45 years; 549 women [44%]; 958 [77%] completed the trial), significantly lower levels of exposure were observed in the immediate vs gradual reduction group for CO (mean difference, -4.06 parts per million [ppm] [95% CI, -4.89 to -3.23]; P < .0055), 3-HPMA (ratio of geometric means, 0.83 [95% CI, 0.77 to 0.88]; P < .0055), and PheT (ratio of geometric means, 0.88 [95% CI, 0.83 to 0.93]; P < .0055). Significantly lower levels of exposure were observed in the immediate reduction vs control group for CO (mean difference, -3.38 [95% CI, -4.40 to -2.36]; P < .0055), 3-HPMA (ratio of geometric means, 0.81 [95% CI, 0.75 to 0.88]; P < .0055), and PheT (ratio of geometric means, 0.86 [95% CI, 0.81 to 0.92]; P < .0055). No significant differences were observed between the gradual reduction vs control groups for CO (mean difference, 0.68 [95% CI, -0.31 to 1.67]; P = .18), 3-HPMA (ratio of geometric means, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.91 to 1.06]; P = .64), and PheT (ratio of geometric means, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.92 to 1.04]; P = .52). Conclusions and Relevance: Among smokers, immediate reduction of nicotine in cigarettes led to significantly greater decreases in biomarkers of smoke exposure across time compared with gradual reduction or a control group, with no significant differences between gradual reduction and control. Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT02139930.

Reimagining human dissection in preclinical medical education using studio-based learning: A retrospective pilot study.

Human dissections in the current medical curriculum are conducted using a checklist approach to prioritize the exposure of anatomical structures. In this setting, anatomy educators are labored to enhance their engagement during the dissection. To address this issue, we considered the current medical education pedagogies and identified a novel approach of studio-based learning (SBL) for application in a Human Dissection Workshop. This study aimed to (1) evaluate students' perceptions of SBL, (2) appraise the impact of SBL on anatomical knowledge learning, and (3) interpret the results of a validated questionnaire. Workshop participants were recruited from Year 2 medical students at the Chinese University of Hong Kong from the 2020 and 2021 cohorts. Fifty-one students participated in the workshop (N = 24 [2020], N = 27 [2021]), and 50 of them completed the postworkshop questionnaire rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Nineteen items were validated using a factor analysis. The interpretation of the questionnaire results demonstrated the different learning outcomes of the workshop, which included (1) enhancing students' knowledge and spatial understanding of anatomical structures, (2) strengthening students' appreciation of gross pathologies and clinical relevance, and (3) promoting higher-order thinking skills. To our knowledge, this is the first study to introduce SBL in medical education. The successful implementation of the workshop reflects the promising potential of SBL for enhancing human dissection and supplementing the medical curriculum.

Hydroponic Growth of [13C]-Labeled Tobacco for DNA Damage Studies in Cigarette Smokers.

Cigarette smoking is the acknowledged major cause of cancers of the lung and oral cavity and is an established important risk factor for multiple other cancers. DNA addition products (DNA adducts) caused by cigarette smoking are critical factors in its mechanism of carcinogenesis. However, most DNA adducts detected to date in humans cannot be specifically ascribed to smoking but rather have multiple exogenous and endogenous sources. In the study reported here, we prepared [13C]-labeled tobacco to address this problem. We report for the first time the successful growth from seeds to flowering under hydroponic conditions of highly [13C]-labeled tobacco in a controlled 13CO2 environment. The standard growth procedure with optimized conditions is described in detail. The [13C]-enrichment rate was assessed by quantifying nicotine and sugars and their [13C]-isotopologues in this tobacco using high-resolution mass spectrometry, reaching >94% in the tobacco leaves. The [13C]-labeled leaves after curing will be used to make cigarettes, allowing investigation of the specific contributions of tobacco smoke carcinogens to identified DNA adducts in smokers.

Cardiogenol C can induce Mouse Hair Bulge Progenitor Cells to Transdifferentiate into Cardiomyocyte-like Cells.

BACKGROUND: Hair bulge progenitor cells (HBPCs) are multipotent stem cells derived from the bulge region of mice vibrissal hairs. The purified HBPCs express CD34, K15 and K14 surface markers. It has been reported that HBPCs could be readily induced to transdifferentiate into adipocytes and osteocytes. However, the ability of HBPCs to transdifferentiate into cardiomyocytes has not yet been investigated. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The cardiomyogenic potential of HBPCs was investigated using a small cell-permeable molecule called Cardiogenol C. We established that Cardiogenol C could induce HBPCs to express transcription factors GATA4, Nkx2.5 and Tbx5, which are early specific markers for pre-cardiomyogenic cells. In prolonged cultures, the Cardiogenol C-treated HBPCs can also express muscle proteins, cardiac-specific troponin I and sarcomeric myosin heavy chain. However, we did not observe the ability of these cells to functionally contract. Hence, we called these cells cardiomyocyte-like cells rather than cardiomyocytes. We tried to remedy this deficiency by pre-treating HBPCs with Valproic acid first before exposing them to Cardiogenol C. This pretreatment inhibited, rather than improved, the effectiveness of Cardiogenol C in reprogramming the HBPCs. We used comparative proteomics to determine how Cardiogenol C worked by identifying proteins that were differentially expressed. We identified proteins that were involved in promoting cell differentiation, cardiomyocyte development and for the normal function of striated muscles. From those differentially expressed proteins, we further propose that Cardiogenol C might exert its effect by activating the Wnt signaling pathway through the suppression of Kremen1. In addition, by up-regulating the expression of chromatin remodeling proteins, SIK1 and Smarce1 would initiate cardiac differentiation. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: In conclusion, our CD34+/K15+ HBPCs could be induced to transdifferentiate into cardiomyocyte-like cells using a small molecule called Cardiogenol C. The process involves activation of the Wnt signaling pathway and altered expression of several key chromatin remodeling proteins. The finding is clinically significant as HBPCs offer a readily accessible and autologous source of progenitor cells for cell-based therapy of heart disease, which is one of major killers in developed countries.

Identification and quantification of phenanthrene ortho-quinones in human urine and their association with lipid peroxidation.

Although human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) has been associated with in vivo oxidative damage, and hydroxyPAH metabolites have been used as biomarkers to assess PAH-induced oxidative stress, few studies have looked at the likely causative compounds for oxidative stress in humans - PAH quinones. We developed a method using pre-column derivatization - liquid chromatography-heated electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HESI-MS/MS) to analyze ortho-phenanthrene quinones (PheQs) in human urine. 1,2-PheQ and 3,4-PheQ were identified and quantified in 3 mL of human urine; their total concentrations were higher in cigarette smokers (0.79 ± 0.98 nmol/6h urine) than in nonsmokers (0.20 ± 0.98 nmol/6h urine) (p < 0.01). The total of 1,2-PheQ and 3,4-PheQ were more strongly correlated with urinary (Z)-7-[1R,2R,3R,5S)-3,5-dihydroxy-2-[(E,3S)-3-hydroxyoct-1-enyl]cyclopentyl]hept-5-enoic acid (8-iso-PGF2α), a biomarker of lipid peroxidation (R2 = 0.53, p < 0.001), than the other phenanthrene metabolites including phenanthrene tetraol (PheT), phenanthrene-1,2-dihydrodiol (1,2-PheD), and total phenanthrene phenols (OHPhe), consistent with the concept that PheQs and likely other PAH quinones play a causal role in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in humans. Thus, PheQs may be suitable as biomarkers to assess human exposure to oxygenated PAH and the subsequent oxidative damage. This study provides unique support, by analysis of human urinary metabolites, for the PAH quinone mediated oxidative damage hypothesis of PAH carcinogenesis.

Effects of cessation of cigarette smoking on eicosanoid biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative damage.

The urinary metabolites "prostaglandin E2 metabolite" (PGE-M) and (Z)-7-[1R,2R,3R,5S)-3,5-dihydroxy-2-[(E,3S)-3-hydroxyoct-1-enyl]cyclopentyl]hept-5-enoic acid (8-iso-PGF2α) are biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative damage, respectively, and are elevated in cigarette smokers. Relatively little is known about the effects of smoking cessation on these biomarkers. To investigate this, current cigarette smokers interested in quitting were recruited and invited to participate in a smoking cessation study where varenicline (Chantix) and brief supportive behavioral counseling were offered at each visit after baseline. Subjects returned to the clinic during the 12 week treatment phase for 9 visits post cessation on days 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 42, 56, 70 and 84. Urine samples were collected at each visit and analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for PGE-M, 8-iso-PGF2α, and cotinine. Cotinine values demonstrated that 15 of 38 subjects quit smoking for the entire 84 day period. Significant decreases in mean levels of PGE-M and 8-iso-PGF2α per milligram creatinine were observed in these subjects, by 44% (p = 0.0014) and 27% (p<0.001), respectively. The results of this study demonstrate that cessation of smoking for 84 days results in modest but significant declines in urinary PGE-M and 8-iso-PGF2α indicating reductions in systemic inflammation and oxidative damage. Given that levels were only modestly decreased, these markers are not specific to tobacco-smoke exposure. The modest declines in these biomarkers should be considered when planning studies with ex-smokers. There is a "hangover" from smoking that lasts at least 3 months.

Effects of immediate versus gradual nicotine reduction in cigarettes on biomarkers of biological effects.

AIM: A previous study showed significantly greater reductions in number of cigarettes smoked and biomarkers of toxicant and carcinogen exposure in smokers assigned to immediate reduction of nicotine in cigarettes to very low levels versus gradually over time or continued smoking of normal nicotine content cigarettes. This study examines the effects of these approaches on selected biomarkers associated with harmful biological effects. DESIGN: Three-arm, randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Ten United States academic institutional sites. PARTICIPANTS: Daily smokers uninterested in quitting smoking with a mean age of 45.1 [standard deviation (SD) = 13.4)] years and smoking 17.1 (SD = 8.5) cigarettes/day; 43.9% (549 of 1250) female; 60.6% (758 of 1250) white ethnicity. INTERVENTIONS: (1) Smoking cigarettes where nicotine content was immediately reduced to very low levels (n = 503); (2) smoking cigarettes where nicotine content was gradually reduced, with dose changes occurring monthly (n = 498); and (3) continued smoking with normal nicotine content cigarettes (n = 249). MEASUREMENTS: Smokers were assessed at baseline while smoking their usual brand cigarettes, and again at 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 weeks. Outcomes were areas under the concentration time curve (AUC) for the period of study of biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress and hematological parameters. FINDINGS: No consistent significant differences were observed across groups (Bayes factors showing data to be insensitive), with the only exception being red blood cell size variability, which was observed to be lower in the immediate versus gradual nicotine reduction [mean difference =  -0.11; 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.18, -0.04, P = 0.004] and normal nicotine control groups (mean difference = - 0.15, 95% CI = -0.23, -0.06, P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: It remains unclear whether switching to very low nicotine cigarettes leads to a short-term reduction in biomarkers of tobacco-related harm.

Longitudinal stability in cigarette smokers of urinary eicosanoid biomarkers of oxidative damage and inflammation.

The urinary metabolites (Z)-7-[1R,2R,3R,5S)-3,5-dihydroxy-2-[(E,3S)-3-hydroxyoct-1-enyl]cyclopentyl]hept-5-enoic acid (8-iso-PGF2α), an F2-isoprostane and biomarker of oxidative damage, and "prostaglandin E2 metabolite" (PGE-M), a biomarker of inflammation, are elevated in cigarette smokers. However, there is little information in the literature on the longitudinal stability of these widely used biomarkers. In a large clinical trial involving 10 institutional sites, smokers were given, free of charge over a period of 20 weeks, Spectrum NRC600/601 research cigarettes containing 15.5 mg nicotine/g tobacco. All participants were instructed to smoke these cigarettes for the duration of the study. At weeks 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20, first morning urine voids were collected and analyzed for 8-iso-PGF2α and PGE-M using validated liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry methods. The mean level of 8-iso-PGF2α at Week 4 was 1.34 ± 1.08 (S.D.) pmol/mg creatinine (N = 226) while that of PGE-M was 73.7 ± 113 (S.D.) pmol/mg creatinine (N = 232). The corresponding levels at Week 20 were 1.35 ± 0.93 (S.D.) pmol/mg creatinine (N = 209) for 8-iso-PGF2α and 74.2 ± 142 (S.D.) pmol/mg creatinine (N = 210) for PGE-M. There was variation in these values in the intervening weeks. The intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) were 0.51 (95% CI, 0.45, 0.57) and 0.36 (0.30, 0.43), for 8-iso-PGF2α and PGE-M, respectively, indicating fair longitudinal stability for 8-iso-PGF2α and poorer longitudinal stability for PGE-M in cigarette smokers. Males had higher ICC values than females for both 8-iso-PGF2α and PGE-M. These results indicate that, in addition to cigarette smoking, endogenous processes of oxidative damage and inflammation influence the levels of these biomarkers over time among current smokers.

BRE plays an essential role in preventing replicative and DNA damage-induced premature senescence.

The BRE gene, alias BRCC45, produces a 44 kDa protein that is normally distributed in both cytoplasm and nucleus. In this study, we used adult fibroblasts isolated from wild-type (WT) and BRE knockout (BRE(-/-)) mice to investigate the functional role of BRE in DNA repair and cellular senescence. We compared WT with BRE(-/-) fibroblasts at different cell passages and observed that the mutant fibroblasts entered replicative senescence earlier than the WT fibroblasts. With the use of gamma irradiation to induce DNA damage in fibroblasts, the percentage of SA-ß-Gal(+) cells was significantly higher in BRE(-/-) fibroblasts compared with WT cells, suggesting that BRE is also associated with DNA damage-induced premature senescence. We also demonstrated that the gamma irradiation induced γ-H2AX foci, a DNA damage marker, persisted significantly longer in BRE(-/-) fibroblasts than in WT fibroblasts, confirming that the DNA repair process is impaired in the absence of BRE. In addition, the BRCA1-A complex recruitment and homologous recombination (HR)-dependent DNA repair process upon DNA damage were impaired in BRE(-/-) fibroblasts. Taken together, our results demonstrate a role for BRE in both replicative senescence and DNA damage-induced premature senescence. This can be attributed to BRE being required for BRCA1-A complex-driven HR DNA repair.

Integrative Analysis of the Developing Postnatal Mouse Heart Transcriptome.

In mammals, cardiomyocytes rapidly proliferate in the fetus and continue to do so for a few more days after birth. These cardiomyocytes then enter into growth arrest but the detailed molecular mechanisms involved have not been fully elucidated. We have addressed this issue by comparing the transcriptomes of 2-day-old (containing dividing cardiomyocytes) with 13-day-old (containing growth arrested cardiomyocytes) postnatal mouse hearts. We performed comparative microarray analysis on the heart tissues and then conducted Functional annotation, Gene ontology, KEGG pathway and Gene Set enrichment analyses on the differentially expressed genes. The bioinformatics analysis revealed that gene ontology categories associated with the "cell cycle", "DNA replication", "chromosome segregation" and "microtubule cytoskeleton" were down-regulated. Inversely, "immune response", "extracellular matrix", "cell differentiation" and "cell membrane" were up-regulated. Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA) has revealed that GATA4, MYH7 and IGF1R were the key drivers of the gene interaction networks. In addition, Regulator Effects network analysis suggested that TASP1, TOB1, C1orf61, AIF1, ROCK1, TFF2 and miR503-5p may be acting on the cardiomyocytes in 13-day-old mouse hearts to inhibit cardiomyocyte proliferation and G1/S phase transition. RT-qPCR was used to validate genes which were differentially expressed and genes that play a prominent role in the pathways and interaction networks that we identified. In sum, our integrative analysis has provided more insights into the transcriptional regulation of cardiomyocyte exit from the cell cycle during postnatal heart development. The results also pinpoint potential regulators that could be used to induce growth arrested cardiomyocytes to proliferate in the infarcted heart.

Transient acid treatment cannot induce neonatal somatic cells to become pluripotent stem cells.

Currently, there are genetic- and chemical-based methods for producing pluripotent stem cells from somatic cells, but all of them are extremely inefficient.  However, a simple and efficient technique has recently been reported by Obokata et al (2014a, b) that creates pluripotent stem cells through acid-based treatment of somatic cells.  These cells were named stimulus-triggered acquisition of pluripotency (STAP) stem cells. This would be a major game changer in regenerative medicine if the results could be independently replicated. Hence, we isolated CD45 (+) splenocytes from five-day-old Oct4-GFP mice and treated the cells with acidified (pH 5.7) Hank's Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS) for 25 min, using the methods described by Obokata et al 2014c. However, we found that this method did not induce the splenocytes to express the stem cell marker Oct4-GFP when observed under a confocal microscope three to six days after acid treatment. qPCR analysis also confirmed that acid treatment did not induce the splenocytes to express the stemness markers Oct4, Sox2 and Nanog.  In addition, we obtained similar results from acid-treated Oct4-GFP lung fibroblasts. In summary, we have not been able to produce STAP stem cells from neonatal splenocytes or lung fibroblasts using the acid-based treatment reported by Obokata et al (2014a, b, c).

CD146+ human umbilical cord perivascular cells maintain stemness under hypoxia and as a cell source for skeletal regeneration.

The human umbilical cord perivascular cells (HUCPVCs) have been considered as an alternative source of mesenchymal progenitors for cell based regenerative medicine. However, the biological properties of these cells remain to be well characterized. In the present study, HUCPVCs were isolated and sorted by CD146(+) pericyte marker. The purified CD146(+) HUCPVCs were induced to differentiate efficiently into osteoblast, chondrocyte and adipocyte lineages in vitro. Six weeks following subcutaneous transplantation of CD146(+) HUCPVCs-Gelfoam-alginate 3D complexes in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice, newly formed bone matrix with embedded osteocytes of donor origin was observed. The functional engraftment of CD146(+) HUCPVCs in the new bone regenerates was further confirmed in a critical-sized bone defect model in SCID mice. Hypoxic conditions suppressed osteogenic differentiation while increased cell proliferation and colony-forming efficiency of CD146(+) HUCPVCs as compared to that under normoxic conditions. Re-oxygenation restored the multi-differentiation potential of the CD146(+) HUCPVCs. Western blot analysis revealed an upregulation of HIF-1α, HIF-2α, and OCT-4 protein expression in CD146(+) HUCPVCs under hypoxia, while there was no remarkable change in SOX2 and NANOG expression. The gene expression profiles of stem cell transcription factors between cells treated by normoxia and hypoxic conditions were compared by PCR array analysis. Intriguingly, PPAR-γ was dramatically downregulated (20-fold) in mRNA expression under hypoxia, and was revealed to possess a putative binding site in the Hif-2α gene promoter region. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays confirmed the binding of PPAR-γ protein to the Hif-2α promoter and the binding was suppressed by hypoxia treatment. Luciferase reporter assay showed that the Hif-2α promoter activity was suppressed by PPAR expression. Thus, PPAR-γ may involve in the regulation of HIF-2α for stemness maintenance and promoting the expansion of CD146(+) HUCPVCs in response to hypoxia. CD146(+) HUCPVCs may serve as a potential autologous cell source for bone regeneration.

Silencing BRE expression in human umbilical cord perivascular (HUCPV) progenitor cells accelerates osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation.

BRE is a multifunctional adapter protein involved in DNA repair, cell survival and stress response. To date, most studies of this protein have been focused in the tumor model. The role of BRE in stem cell biology has never been investigated. Therefore, we have used HUCPV progenitor cells to elucidate the function of BRE. HUCPV cells are multipotent fetal progenitor cells which possess the ability to differentiate into a multitude of mesenchymal cell lineages when chemically induced and can be more easily amplified in culture. In this study, we have established that BRE expression was normally expressed in HUCPV cells but become down-regulated when the cells were induced to differentiate. In addition, silencing BRE expression, using BRE-siRNAs, in HUCPV cells could accelerate induced chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation. Hence, we postulated that BRE played an important role in maintaining the stemness of HUCPV cells. We used microarray analysis to examine the transcriptome of BRE-silenced cells. BRE-silencing negatively regulated OCT4, FGF5 and FOXO1A. BRE-silencing also altered the expression of epigenetic genes and components of the TGF-ß/BMP and FGF signaling pathways which are crucially involved in maintaining stem cell self-renewal. Comparative proteomic profiling also revealed that BRE-silencing resulted in decreased expressions of actin-binding proteins. In sum, we propose that BRE acts like an adaptor protein that promotes stemness and at the same time inhibits the differentiation of HUCPV cells.

Promyelocytic leukemia (PML) protein plays important roles in regulating cell adhesion, morphology, proliferation and migration.

PML protein plays important roles in regulating cellular homeostasis. It forms PML nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) that act like nuclear relay stations and participate in many cellular functions. In this study, we have examined the proteome of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) derived from normal (PML(+/+)) and PML knockout (PML(-/-)) mice. The aim was to identify proteins that were differentially expressed when MEFs were incapable of producing PML. Using comparative proteomics, total protein were extracted from PML(-/-) and PML(+/+) MEFs, resolved by two dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) gels and the differentially expressed proteins identified by LC-ESI-MS/MS. Nine proteins (PML, NDRG1, CACYBP, CFL1, RSU1, TRIO, CTRO, ANXA4 and UBE2M) were determined to be down-regulated in PML(-/-) MEFs. In contrast, ten proteins (CIAPIN1, FAM50A, SUMO2 HSPB1 NSFL1C, PCBP2, YWHAG, STMN1, TPD52L2 and PDAP1) were found up-regulated. Many of these differentially expressed proteins play crucial roles in cell adhesion, migration, morphology and cytokinesis. The protein profiles explain why PML(-/-) and PML(+/+) MEFs were morphologically different. In addition, we demonstrated PML(-/-) MEFs were less adhesive, proliferated more extensively and migrated significantly slower than PML(+/+) MEFs. NDRG1, a protein that was down-regulated in PML(-/-) MEFs, was selected for further investigation. We determined that silencing NDRG1expression in PML(+/+) MEFs increased cell proliferation and inhibited PML expression. Since NDRG expression was suppressed in PML(-/-) MEFs, this may explain why these cells proliferate more extensively than PML(+/+) MEFs. Furthermore, silencing NDRG1expression also impaired TGF-ß1 signaling by inhibiting SMAD3 phosphorylation.

Comparative proteomic analysis reveals differentially expressed proteins regulated by a potential tumor promoter, BRE, in human esophageal carcinoma cells.

Esophageal tumorigenesis is a complex and cascading process, involving the interaction of many genes and proteins. In this study, we have used the comparative proteomic approach to identify tumor-associated proteins and explore the carcinogenic mechanisms. Two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) and MALDI-TOF MS analysis of esophageal carcinoma and control cells revealed 10 proteins that were upregulated. A further 10 proteins were downregulated. Among these 20 differentially expressed proteins, brain and reproductive organ-expressed (BRE) protein was identified as a potential tumor promoter. It was high expressed by the esophageal carcinoma cells, as confirmed by RT-PCR and immunoblotting. BRE has been reported to be a stress-responsive protein. To gain further insight into its function, BRE expression was silenced in esophageal carcinoma cells using BRE-specific small interference RNA. It was discovered that silencing BRE expression downregulated prohibitin expression, but upregulated tumor-suppressor p53 expression. Furthermore, cyclin A and CDK2 expressions were suppressed suggesting that BRE inhibited cell proliferation. These results implied that BRE plays a significant role in mediating antiapoptotic and proliferative responses in esophageal carcinoma cells.

Induction of growth arrest and polycomb gene expression by reversine allows C2C12 cells to be reprogrammed to various differentiated cell types.

Reversine is a small, cell permeable synthetic chemical that has the ability to reprogram C2C12 myogenic cells to become various differentiated cell types. However, we still do not know how reversine works or the genes and proteins involved. Hence, we have used comparative proteomic techniques to address this issue. We have identified several proteins that were associated with cell cycle progression which were downregulated by reversine. Simultaneously, there were proteins associated with the induction of growth arrest that were upregulated. Consequently, we investigated the effects of reversine on C2C12 cell growth and established that it inhibited cell growth. Reversine had little affects on cell survival. We also investigated whether expressions of the polycomb genes, polycomb repressive complex 1 (PHC1) and Ezh2, were affected by reversine. Polycomb group genes are normally involved in chromatin based gene silencing. We found that PHC1 and Ezh2 expressions were enhanced by reversine and that it correlated with the inhibition of muscle specific transcriptional factor genes, myogenin, MyoD, and Myf5. Therefore, we believe that reversine is able to reprogram C2C12 cells to various differentiated cell types by inducing cell growth arrest, and promoting PHC1 and Ezh2 expressions.

Cyclin I and p53 are differentially expressed during the terminal differentiation of the postnatal mouse heart.

In this study, we have used Ki-67 and MF20 mAb to determine how extensively cardiomyocytes proliferate in the postnatal mouse heart. It was established that the cardiomyocytes divided rapidly in 2-day-old hearts. However, at 13 days, the majority of cardiomyocytes had entered into terminal growth arrest and differentiation. We exploited this finding in order to identify proteins that were associated with cardiomyocyte growth and differentiation. The protein profiles of 2- and 13-day-old hearts were established by two-dimensional electrophoresis and compared. Seventeen protein spots were found to be differentially expressed at day 13. Eight of them were up-regulated while the remaining nine protein spots were down-regulated. We focused our attention on 2 of the proteins identified by MALDI-TOF MS, cyclin I and p53, because they are both believed to be involved in cell cycle regulation. Western blot analysis confirmed that both proteins were positively up-regulated in the 13-day-old postnatal heart. To determine directly whether these proteins were associated with cell proliferation, we examined their expression patterns in H9c2 cardiomyocytes maintained in vitro. We established that cyclin I expression was low during the growing phase of H9c2 culture and high during the growth arrest/differentiation phases. In contrast, p53 expression was unchanged during both phases. The various growth phases were confirmed by the presence of cyclin A and growth arrest-specific 1 proteins. We investigated whether silencing cyclin I expression using cyclin I-siRNA could promote an increase in H9c2 cell proliferation. It was determined that silencing cyclin I could enhance a small, but significant, increase in H9c2 cell division. Similar results were obtained for cardiomyocytes extracted from 13-day-old hearts. These results imply that the reason why cardiomyocytes in 13-day-old hearts increased cyclin I expression was probably associated with terminal growth arrest. However, the increase in p53 expression was probably associated with cardiomyocyte differentiation, rather than growth arrest.

Comparative proteomic analysis reveals a function of the novel death receptor-associated protein BRE in the regulation of prohibitin and p53 expression and proliferation.

The brain and reproductive organ expressed (BRE) gene encodes a highly conserved stress-modulating protein. To gain further insight into the function of this gene, we used comparative proteomics to investigate the protein profiles of C2C12 and D122 cells resulting from small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated silencing as well as overexpression of BRE. Silencing of BRE in C2C12 cells, using siRNA, resulted in up-regulated Akt-3 and carbonic anhydrase III expression, while the 26S proteasome regulatory subunit S14 and prohibitin were down-regulated. Prohibitin is a potential tumour suppressor gene, which can directly interact with p53. We found that cell proliferation was significantly increased after knockdown of BRE, concomitant with reduced p53 and prohibitin expression. In contrast, we observed decreased proliferation and up-regulation of p53 and prohibitin when BRE was overexpressed in the D122 cell line. In total, five proteins were found to be up-regulated after BRE over-expression. The majority of these proteins can target or crosstalk with NF-kappaB, which plays a central role in regulating cell proliferation, differentiation and survival. Our results establish a crucial role for BRE in the regulation of key proteins of the cellular stress-response machinery and provide an explanation for the multifunctional nature of BRE.