Metamotivational state and dominance: Links with EMG gradients during isokinetic leg extension and a test of the misfit effect.

Although electromyographic (EMG) gradients have been observed in passive musculature during perceptual motor tasks, it is unclear whether this is related to metamotivational state or dominance. In addition, a misfit effect has been suggested whereby individuals report negative psychological responses when metamotivational state and dominance do not match. Research examining these phenomena within an exercise context is limited; therefore, this study used a reversal theory (Apter, 2001) framework to examine two hypotheses. The first hypothesis was that an EMG gradient would be observed when individuals performed isokinetic leg extensions in a telic metamotivational state, regardless of telic or paratelic metamotivational dominance. Second, it was hypothesizsed that telic-dominant individuals and paratelic-dominant individuals would perform better on this task when in the telic and paratelic state, respectively. Altogether, 14 telic-dominant and 12 paratelic-dominant individuals performed 100 self-paced isokinetic leg extensions at a rate of 90° · s(-1) in both telic and paratelic state manipulated conditions. Regardless of state, an EMG gradient was observed in telic-dominant individuals but not in paratelic-dominant individuals. Paratelic-dominant individuals performed better in the paratelic than the telic state condition, whereas in the telic state condition, telic-dominant individuals performed better than paratelic-dominant individuals. Findings add to the debate concerning the role of telic metamotivational state and dominance in the production of EMG gradients. Performance data support the misfit effect that outcomes are more positive when metamotivational state and dominance are congruent. Suggestions for research developments in this area are offered, as are tentative implications for applied practice.

Stress responses during aerobic exercise in relation to motivational dominance and state.

We examined the hypothesis that congruence between motivational dominance and state results in optimal psychological responses and performance during exercise. Twenty participants (10 telic dominant and 10 paratelic dominant) rated their stress at 5 min intervals as they cycled on an ergometer at gas exchange threshold for 30 min in both telic and paratelic state manipulated conditions. Participants then performed a test to exhaustion at a resistance equivalent to 110% of VO(2max). The hypothesized interaction between condition and dominance was significant for internal tension stress, as paratelic dominants were more stressed than telic dominants when exercising in the telic state and telic dominants were more stressed than paratelic dominants when exercising in the paratelic state. Similarly, the condition × dominance interaction for internal stress discrepancy was significant, as paratelic dominants reported greater internal stress discrepancy exercising in the telic compared with the paratelic state. Findings are discussed in relation to the application of reversal theory for understanding stress responses during aerobic exercise.

Effects of instructional and motivational self-talk on the vertical jump.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of instructional and motivational self-talk on performance and the kinematics of the vertical jump. After completing a 10-minute warm-up on a stationary bike, 12 men (mean +/- SD; 20.8+/- 3.0 years, 77.8 +/- 13.5 kg, 1.78 +/- 0.07 m) and 12 women (22.1 +/- 5.8 years, 62.6 +/- 6.7 kg, 1.65 +/- 0.05 m) performed 4 vertical jumps, 3 minutes apart, on a force plate set at a 1000-Hz sampling frequency. Before each trial, participants engaged in 1 of 4 counterbalanced interventions, verbalized out loud, which included motivational self-talk, instructional self-talk, neutral self-talk, or no instruction. One-way analysis of variance with repeated measures, followed by paired t-tests with a Bonferroni adjustment, were used to analyze data. Both instructional (0.415 m) and motivational (0.414 m) self-talk led to greater center-of-mass displacement than neutral self-talk (0.403 m, p = 0.001 and 0.003, respectively, alpha set at 0.008). Both instructional (263.9 N x s) and motivational self-talk (261.2 N x s) led to greater impulse than neutral self-talk (254.1 N x s, p = 0.005 and 0.004, respectively, alpha set at 0.025). Both instructional self-talk (582.6 degrees x s-1) and motivational self-talk (592.3 degrees x s-1) led to quicker angular rotation about the knee than neutral self-talk (565.8 degrees x s-1, p = 0.001 and 0.018, respectively, alpha set at 0.025). These results may indicate that self-talk leads to greater angular velocity about the knee, thus generating greater impulse and increased jump height-a conjecture that needs empirical testing. Self-talk may contribute to improved performance in sports requiring power-based skills.

Psychological responses to injury in competitive sport: a critical review.

Research has attempted to examine the psychological impact of athletic injury to assist rehabilitation personnel when treating injured athletes. Sports trainers, sports therapists, physiotherapists, medical staff and sports psychologists should be aware of psychological factors impacting on the injury experience when involved in an athlete's rehabilitation. A number of models have been proposed as useful frameworks for investigating and describing the psychological response to athletic injury. Many researchers have relied upon applying or adapting grief and cognitive appraisal models originally derived from the clinical and stress related psychology literature in an attempt to describe the psychological response to athletic injury. This article provides an overview of these models and offers a critical appraisal of this research, specifically focusing on the grief response models and the integrated model of response to sport injury and rehabilitation. Criticisms focus on the lack of research supporting a uniformed sequence of stages as a feature of response to athletic injury. Further grief criticisms centre on the absence of denial in much of the research to date. The article then focuses on the dynamic core of the integrated response to sport injury and rehabilitation model. It is argued that the interrelationships between emotional responses, behavioural responses, cognitive appraisals and recovery outcomes are not as simple as suggested in the model.

Motivation, stress, and cortisol responses in skydiving.

This study examined metamotivational dominance, metamotivational states, and cortisol responses in skydiving participants. Data were obtained from 23 experienced skydivers 15 min. prior to and following a skydive. Respondents were mainly paratelic-conformist dominant and most occupied the conformist and arousal-seeking states prior to skydiving, assessed respectively, with Apter, et al.'s Motivational Style Profile and Cook, et al.'s measure of metamotivational states. Paratelic-conformist dominance indicates a predisposition towards conformity and a desire to be spontaneous, and the conformist and arousal seeking states reported prior to completing the skydive represent a desire to conform to expected norms but also to seek arousal. There was no significant change in scores for metamotivational state or stress following skydiving. Contrary to expectations, cortisol level prior to skydiving was negatively associated with external stress. These results support the paratelic, but not the negativistic, dominance found in previous samples of risk sport participants (no skydivers). The conformist dominance and pre-dive conformist metamotivational state scores of this sample may be fundamental for adhering to safety regulations imposed on skydivers. To obtain better understanding of this phenomenon, researchers should attempt to measure these variables during, rather than prior to and after, participation in risk sports.

Acute mood responses to a 15-minute long walking session at self-selected intensity: effects of an experimentally-induced telic or paratelic state.

In the present controlled experiment, we examine the influence of opposite states of mind (the "telic" vs. "paratelic" state) on mood response to a 15 min long walk at self-selected pace. Fifty-five first-year students were randomized to a telic (n = 22) or paratelic (n = 33) motivational environment. These opposed motivational environments were created using established reversal theory based procedures to induce the telic versus paratelic state. More than 90% of participants walked within a motivational state corresponding to the environment they were allocated. No significant mood changes (neither positive, nor negative) occurred pre- to postexercise in participants who walked with the telic state operative (p > .05). This has important implications when considering the use of exercise to relieve depression in clinical populations. Also, our findings shed new light on the reasons why not all individuals respond in the same way to moderate exercise. Practically, these results suggest that motivational state should be considered to optimize the mood enhancing effects of aerobic exercise.

Changes in need satisfaction and motivation orientation as predictors of psychological and behavioural outcomes in exercise referral.

Employing Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) as a theoretical framework, this study examined psychological need satisfaction and motivational regulations as predictors of psychological and behavioural outcomes in exercise referral (ER). ER patients (N = 293; mean age 54.49) completed the measures of motivational regulations, psychological need satisfaction, health-related quality of life, life satisfaction, anxiety, depression and physical activity at entry, exit and 6 months following the end of a supervised exercise programme. Change in (Δ) intrinsic motivation during the scheme significantly predicted adherence and Δ habitual physical activity. Δ psychological need satisfaction from entry to exit significantly predicted Δ habitual physical activity from exit to 6-month follow-up. Δ psychological need satisfaction significantly predicted Δ motivational regulation and Δ psychological outcomes. Contrary to expectations, Δ self-determined regulation did not significantly predict Δ psychological outcomes during the structured part of the scheme, however, it did significantly predict Δ in psychological outcomes from exit to 6-month follow-up. These findings expand on cross-sectional research to demonstrate that psychological need satisfaction during supervised ER longitudinally predicts motivational regulation and psychological outcomes up to 6 months after a structured programme.

A preliminary development of the Re-Injury Anxiety Inventory (RIAI).

OBJECTIVES: The present paper outlines the initial development of an instrument to measure re-injury anxiety. METHODS: Face, content and factorial validity were examined over three stages of exploratory factor analyses. PARTICIPANTS: 248 injured sport participants completed the scale. RESULTS: A 28-item measure was produced to measure re-injury anxiety, comprising of two factors: re-injury anxieties regarding rehabilitation (RIA-R: 15 items) and re-injury anxieties regarding returning to training/competition (RIA-RE: 13 items). These two factors accounted for 80.56% of the total variance. The internal consistency for both factors was above the .70 criterion value; rehabilitation re-injury anxiety (alpha=.98); re-entry into competition re-injury anxiety (alpha=.96). CONCLUSIONS: Future research needs to test the proposed 2-factor model presented in the current research using confirmatory factor analysis.

Telic dominance influences affective response to a heavy-intensity 10-min treadmill running session.

In this paper, we examine the hypothesis that telic dominance is one of the psychological variables that may influence the exercise-affect relationship according to the dual-mode model of exercise and affect (Ekkekakis, 2003). Thirty-three participants with high or low telic dominance rated their affect at 3-min intervals as they ran on a treadmill while the speed was adjusted to maintain their respiratory exchange ratio at a target value of 1.00 +/- 0.02 for a period of 10 min. Compared with baseline scores (which were not statistically different between the two groups), the mean decline in pleasure at the end of the run was twofold greater in participants with high telic dominance. This was observed after having controlled for individual differences in aerobic fitness (as measured by [Vdot]O(2max)). We also detected an earlier onset of decreases in pleasure in high telic dominant participants. Our data extend the burgeoning research on variables influencing one's ability to continue exercising at an imposed intensity that can produce pain or discomfort (i.e. tolerance of exercise intensity). Additionally, results from this study support continued promotion of tailor-made prescriptions for maximizing positive affective outcomes during exercise, which ultimately may lead to increased adherence to an exercise programme.

A reversal theory analysis of psychological responses during sports injury rehabilitation.

CONTEXT: Few studies have examined psychological and emotional processes in injury rehabilitation from a longitudinal, theoretically framed perspective. OBJECTIVE: This study explored the applicability of Reversal Theory to examine these processes. SETTING: University of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK. PARTICIPANTS: Three severely injured athletes; two were female (karate and judo) and one was male (hockey), aged 20 to 28. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Fortnightly interviews after participant's initial consultation with a sports therapist, until complete physical rehabilitation. RESULTS: Supported the use of Reversal Theory in this context (eg, as a means of understanding the origins of athletes' emotional responses to injury and changes in these responses throughout rehabilitation). CONCLUSIONS: Suggestions for future research are made (eg, examining the consequences of emotional and metamotivational states for athlete behavior and recovery outcomes during rehabilitation).

Psychological predictors of self-presentation concerns in sport / Preditores psicológicos referentes à auto-apresentação no esporte / Predictores psicológicos en relación con la auto-presentación en el deporte

This study examined predictors of self-presentation concerns in sport. Two hundred and twenty eight competitive athletes (171 men and 117 women) completed measures of self-presentation concerns, social physique anxiety (SPA), self-handicapping (SH), athletic identity (AI), and perfectionism. SPA and SH were consistent predictors across all but one self-presentation dimension in females. Gender differences were evident in the predictors of different dimensions of self-presentation concern. Parental criticism (a perfectionism dimension) was found to be a predictor in males, whereas concern over making mistakes (a perfectionism dimension) and athletic identity were found to be predictors of females' self-presentation concerns. Apart from AI, all relationships were positive. Addressing SPA and SH may help athletes to deal with their competitive self-presentation concerns.(AU)

Este estudo examina os preditores psicológicos da auto-apresentação no esporte. Duzentos e vinte e oito atletas competidores (171 homens e 117 mulheres) completaram questionários referentes à auto-apresentação, ansiedade sócio-física (ASF), auto-incapacidade (AI), identidade atlética (IA), e perfeccionismo. ASF e AI são preditores consistentes para todos sujeitos, mas uma dimensão de auto-apresentação marcante entre o gênero feminino. Diferenças de gênero são evidentes ao se considerar diferenças dimensionais entre os preditores de auto-apresentação. Criticismo parental (uma dimensão do perfeccionismo) foi registrado como um preditor para o gênero masculino, enquanto que sobrepujar erros (uma dimensão do perfeccionismo) e identidade atlética foram registrados como preditores significativos de auto-apresentação entre o gênero feminino. A parte da IA, todas as outras relações foram positivas. Se direcionadas ASF e AI podem ajudar atletas a melhor lidar com sua auto-apresentação competitiva no esporte.(AU)

Este estudio analiza los predictores psicológico de auto-presentación en el deporte. Doscientos veinte y ocho competidores atletas (171 hombres y 117 mujeres) completaron cuestionarios acerca de la libre presentación, la ansiedad social y físico (ASF), la auto invalidez (LI), la identidad de Atletismo (IA), y perfeccionismo. ASF y AI son consistentes predictores para todos los temas, sino una dimensión de la auto-presentación marcada entre las mujeres. De las diferencias de género son evidentes al considerar las diferencias entre lãs dimensiones predictores de auto-presentación. Criticismo parental (una dimensión de lo perfeccionismo) se registró como predictor para el Género Masculino, mientras que los pujar sobre errores (una dimension del perfeccionismo) y identidad atlética como preditores se registraron importantes de la auto-presentación entre el género femenino. La parte de la IA, todas las demás relaciones son positivas. Si dirigida ASF y la IA pueden ayudar a los atletas a hacer frente mejor a su auto-presentación en el deporte competitivo.(AU)