Both the cis-trans equilibrium and isomerization dynamics of a single proline amide modulate ß2-microglobulin amyloid assembly.

The human protein ß2-microglobulin (ß2m) aggregates as amyloid fibrils in patients undergoing long-term hemodialysis. Isomerization of Pro32 from its native cis to a nonnative trans conformation is thought to trigger ß2m misfolding and subsequent amyloid assembly. To examine this hypothesis, we systematically varied the free-energy profile of proline cis-trans isomerization by replacing Pro32 with a series of 4-fluoroprolines via total chemical synthesis. We show that ß2m's stability, (un)folding, and aggregation properties are all influenced by the rate and equilibrium of Pro32 cis-trans isomerization. As anticipated, the ß2m monomer was either stabilized or destabilized by respective incorporation of (2S,4S)-fluoroproline, which favors the native cis amide bond, or the stereoisomeric (2S,4R)-fluoroproline, which disfavors this conformation. However, substitution of Pro32 with 4,4-difluoroproline, which has nearly the same cis-trans preference as proline but an enhanced isomerization rate, caused pronounced destabilization of the protein and increased oligomerization at neutral pH. More remarkably, these subtle alterations in chemical composition--incorporation of one or two fluorine atoms into a single proline residue in the 99 amino acid long protein--modulated the aggregation properties of ß2m, inducing the formation of polymorphically distinct amyloid fibrils. These results highlight the importance of conformational dynamics for molecular assembly of an amyloid cross-ß structure and provide insights into mechanistic aspects of Pro32 cis-trans isomerism in ß2m aggregation.

Protein conformational dynamics in the mechanism of HIV-1 protease catalysis.

We have used chemical protein synthesis and advanced physical methods to probe dynamics-function correlations for the HIV-1 protease, an enzyme that has received considerable attention as a target for the treatment of AIDS. Chemical synthesis was used to prepare a series of unique analogues of the HIV-1 protease in which the flexibility of the "flap" structures (residues 37-61 in each monomer of the homodimeric protein molecule) was systematically varied. These analogue enzymes were further studied by X-ray crystallography, NMR relaxation, and pulse-EPR methods, in conjunction with molecular dynamics simulations. We show that conformational isomerization in the flaps is correlated with structural reorganization of residues in the active site, and that it is preorganization of the active site that is a rate-limiting factor in catalysis.

Ionization state of the catalytic dyad Asp25/25' in the HIV-1 protease: NMR studies of site-specifically 13C labelled HIV-1 protease prepared by total chemical synthesis.

Total chemical synthesis was used to site-specifically (13)C-label active site Asp25 and Asp25' residues in HIV-1 protease and in several chemically synthesized analogues of the enzyme molecule. (13)C NMR measurements were consistent with a monoprotonated state for the catalytic dyad formed by the interacting Asp25, Asp25' side chain carboxyls.

Dynamics of "flap" structures in three HIV-1 protease/inhibitor complexes probed by total chemical synthesis and pulse-EPR spectroscopy.

The unliganded form of nitroxide spin-labeled HIV-1 protease and three different complexes with inhibitors were studied by pulse-EPR spectroscopy to determine "interflap" distance distributions in solution. In the unliganded enzyme, we observed a rather broad distribution with three maxima corresponding to three flap conformers; the principal form is a "semiopen/semiopen" conformer. In the complexes with inhibitors, the dominant conformer is an asymmetric "closed/semiopen" form. Moreover, the distance distribution profile is significantly varied among the different inhibitors, which mimic different species on the reaction coordinate for enzyme catalyzed proteolysis.

Reprint of "Crystal structure of chemically synthesized HIV-1 protease and a ketomethylene isostere inhibitor based on the p2/NC cleavage site" [Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 18 (2008) 4554-4557].

Here we report the X-ray structures of chemically synthesized HIV-1 protease and the inactive [D25N]HIV-1 protease complexed with the ketomethylene isostere inhibitor Ac-Thr-Ile-Nlepsi[CO-CH(2)]Nle-Gln-Arg.amide at 1.4 and 1.8A resolution, respectively. In complex with the active enzyme, the keto-group was found to be converted into the hydrated gem-diol, while the structure of the complex with the inactive D25N enzyme revealed an intact keto-group. These data support the general acid-general base mechanism for HIV-1 protease catalysis.

Crystal structure of chemically synthesized HIV-1 protease and a ketomethylene isostere inhibitor based on the p2/NC cleavage site.

Here we report the X-ray structures of chemically synthesized HIV-1 protease and the inactive [D25N]HIV-1 protease complexed with the ketomethylene isostere inhibitor Ac-Thr-Ile-Nle psi[CO-CH(2)]Nle-Gln-Arg.amide at 1.4 and 1.8A resolution, respectively. In complex with the active enzyme, the keto-group was found to be converted into the hydrated gem-diol, while the structure of the complex with the inactive D25N enzyme revealed an intact keto-group. These data support the general acid-general base mechanism for HIV-1 protease catalysis.

Convergent chemical synthesis and high-resolution x-ray structure of human lysozyme.

In this article, we report the total chemical synthesis of human lysozyme. Lysozyme serves as a widespread model system in various fields of biochemical research, including protein folding, enzyme catalysis, and amyloidogenesis. The 130-aa wild-type polypeptide chain of the human enzyme was assembled from four polypeptide segments by using native chemical ligation in a fully convergent fashion. Key to the assembly strategy is the application of the recently developed kinetically controlled ligation methodology, which provides efficient control over the ligation of two peptide (alpha)thioesters to yield a unique product. This result enables the facile preparation of a 64-residue peptide (alpha)thioester; this segment is joined by native chemical ligation to a 66-aa Cys peptide, to yield the target 130-aa polypeptide chain. The synthetic polypeptide chain was folded in vitro into a defined tertiary structure with concomitant formation of four disulfides, as shown by 2D TOCSY NMR spectroscopy. The structure of the synthetic human lysozyme was confirmed by high-resolution x-ray diffraction, giving the highest-resolution structure (1.04 A) observed to date for this enzyme. Synthetic lysozyme was obtained in good yield and excellent purity and had full enzymatic activity. This facile and efficient convergent synthesis scheme will enable preparation of unique chemical analogs of the lysozyme molecule and will prove useful in numerous areas of lysozyme research in the future.